Summary This study reports on an investigation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis cases in mostly captive wild animals using molecular typing tools [Variable Number of Tandem Repeat (VNTR) typing and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism typing]. The investigation included cases from (i) the National Zoological Gardens of South Africa (NZG) recorded between 2002 and 2011; (ii) Johannesburg Zoo, where tuberculosis was first diagnosed in 2007 and has since been detected in three antelope species; (iii) a rehabilitation centre for vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) in which M. tuberculosis was diagnosed in 2008; and (iv) incidental cases in other facilities including a sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), two unrelated cases in chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) (one of which was from a free‐ranging troop) and a colony of capuchin monkeys (Cebus capucinus). Identical genetic profiles of the latter three isolates indicate the persistence of a single M. tuberculosis strain in this population since at least 2006. Results of the outbreak investigation in the captive vervet monkey colony indicate that it was caused by two unrelated strains, while all 13 M. tuberculosis isolates from 11 animal species in the NZG showed different VNTR patterns. A substantial increase in tuberculosis cases of 60% was recorded in the NZG, compared with the previous reporting period 1991–2001, and may indicate a countrywide trend of increasing spillover of human tuberculosis to wild animals. South Africa ranks among the countries with the highest‐tuberculosis burden worldwide, complicated by an increasing rate of multidrug‐resistant strains. Exposure and infection of captive wildlife in this high prevalence setting is therefore a growing concern for wildlife conservation but also for human health through potential spillback.

ABSTRACT:We immobilized 47 white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) for dehorning with 1-4 mg of etorphine HCl, 10-40 mg of azaperone, and 7,500 IU of hyaluronidase, at a game ranch in South Africa in November 2012. Forty-four received butorphanol intravenously 5 min after recumbency, at the rate of 10 mg of butorphanol per 1 mg of etorphine, and three animals did not. When possible, blood gas and physiologic parameters were measured immediately before butorphanol administration and 10 min later. Statistically significant improvements were observed, with a reduction in pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide in arterial blood, heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure, and with an increase in arterial partial pressure of oxygen, arterial hemoglobin oxygen saturation, and respiratory rate in animals administered butorphanol. In the three animals that did not receive butorphanol, no improvement was apparent. Butorphanol given to recumbent white rhinoceroses immediately after immobilization was associated with improved blood gas values and cardiopulmonary function for at least 10 min. Studies on the sustainability of these effects are necessary.

The population of free-roaming white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) is under serious threat. Captive breeding of this species is therefore becoming more important, but this is challenging and often not successful. Obtaining reproductive reference values is a crucial aspect of improving these breeding results. In this study performed between 2008 and 2016, reproductive performance was analysed in 1,354 animals kept in a 8000 hectares game-ranched environment. Descriptive statistics of this captive population showed an average annual herd growth (%) of 7 .0±0.1 (min -9 –max 15). Average calving rates were calculated as an annual calving rate of 20% and biennial calving rate of 37% adult females calving per year. Females had a median age of 83.2 months at first calving (IQR 72.9–110.7) and inter-calving intervals of 29.2 (IQR 24.6–34.8) months. Furthermore, translocations of animals did not interfere with reproductive success in terms of inter-calving periods or age at first calving. Multivariate models showed a clear seasonal calving pattern with a significant increase of the number of calvings during December–April when compared to April–December. Our results did not show any significant skewed progeny sex ratios. Weather observations showed no significant influence of rain or season on sex ratios of the calves.

Nineteen white rhinoceroses ( Ceratotherium simum ) were anesthetized with 4 mg of etorphine hydrochloride; 35-40 mg of midazolam; and 7,500 international units of hyaluronidase for dehorning purposes at a game ranch in South Africa, to investigate this anesthetic combination. Median time to recumbency was 548 sec (range 361-787 sec). Good muscle relaxation and no muscle rigidity or tremors were observed in 18 animals, and only 1 individual showed slight tremors. In addition, all animals received butorphanol i.v. 5 min after recumbency at the ratio of 10 mg of butorphanol per 1 mg of etorphine. Blood gas and selected physiologic parameters were measured in the recumbent animal, immediately before and 10 min after the administration of butorphanol. Statistically significant improvements were observed in blood gas physiologic and cardiopulmonary parameters 10 min after the administration of butorphanol, with a reduction in arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, systolic blood pressure, and heart rate and an increase in pH, arterial partial pressure of oxygen, oxygen saturation, and respiratory rate (all P < 0.005). After i.v. naltrexone reversal, recovery was uneventful, and median time to walking or running was 110 sec (range 71-247 sec). The results indicate etorphine and midazolam combination is an effective alternative anesthetic protocol and produces good muscle relaxation. Furthermore, i.v. butorphanol was associated with improved blood gas values and cardiopulmonary function for at least 10 min postinjection.

Anthropozoonotic diseases threaten the survival of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Use of accurate diagnostic techniques in gorilla health monitoring contributes to the conservation of gorillas by providing robust information for appropriate management decisions. To identify suitable protozoa diagnostic techniques for wild gorillas, 95 fecal specimens were collected in Lopé National Park and east of Moukalaba-Doudou National Park in Gabon, areas with high and low levels of human activity, respectively. The samples were examined for Cryptosporidium sp. and Giardia sp. by using the following diagnostic techniques: a commercially available immunofluorescent antibody test kit, Merifluor, and a rapid immune-assay, ImmunoCard STAT!, to detect Cryptosporidium sp. and Giardia sp., and a modified Ziehl-Neelsen stain to detect Cryptosporidium sp. oocysts. The results obtained from the Merifluor test, considered the "gold standard" in human studies, were used to estimate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium sp. and Giardia sp. infections in Lopé National Park (19.0% and 22.6%, respectively) and east of Moukalaba-Doudou National Park (0% and 9.1%, respectively). The difference in prevalence in both areas may be associated with differing levels of anthropogenic disturbance. The sensitivity and specificity of the latter two diagnostic techniques were calculated by using the Merifluor test as a control. The ImmunoCard STAT! was found suitable for Giardia sp. antigen detection (specific but not sensitive) and inappropriate for Cryptosporidium sp. antigen detection (not specific or sensitive). The modified Ziehl-Neelsen stain was found to be highly specific but not sensitive in the detection of Cryptosporidium sp. oocysts. These results underline the necessity of using ancillary tests and concentration methods to correctly identify positive samples. This is the first report of Cryptosporidium sp. and Giardia sp. infections in free-ranging western lowland gorillas and highlights the importance of verifying the accuracy of diagnostic techniques developed for human use before applying these to non-human primates.