ObjectiveLifestyle-induced nasopharyngeal carcinoma is a serious but preventable risk factor. This study serves to develop and validate a questionnaire that aims to predict the health behavioural intention on smoking cessation in Sarawak, Malaysia using the Health Belief Model (HBM).DesignA cross-sectional study.SettingUrban and suburban areas in Sarawak, Malaysia.ParticipantsThe preliminary items of the instrument were developed after extensive literature review. The instrument was translated into the Malay language using the forward-backwards method before commencing with the content validity by a panel of 10 experts. Face validity was done both quantitatively and qualitatively by 10 smokers. The construct validity of the instrument was evaluated through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). A total of 100 smokers participated in phase 1 for EFA, while 171 smokers participated in phase 2 for CFA. Internal consistency was measured using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients to evaluate the reliability.ResultsIn the exploratory stage, the factor loading of each item remained within the acceptable threshold. The final revised CFA yielded appropriate fit of the seven-factor model with the following model fit indices: χ2=641.705; df=500; p<0.001; comparative fit index=0.953; Tucker-Lewis Index=0.948; root mean square error of approximation=0.041. Satisfactory convergent validity and divergent validity were shown, with the exception of one pairwise construct. The internal reliability of these scales was above the desirable threshold, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.705 to 0.864 and 0.838 to 0.889 in phases 1 and 2, respectively.ConclusionsThe study substantiated the instrument to be valid and reliable for predicting smokers’ health behavioural intention to reduce cancer risk. The instrument is made up of 34 items, categorised into two sections, six HBM constructs and health behavioural intention. The instrument can be utilised for other smoking cessation-related cancers in different at-risk populations.
Background
Previous studies have shown that females with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) may have excess mortality risk compared to their male counterparts. An important next step to address the high global burden of T2DM and cardiovascular disease (CVD) is an umbrella review to summarize data on sex differences in cardiovascular outcomes for patients with T2DM and assess the strength of the evidence observed.
Methods
Medline and Embase were searched from inception till 7th August 2022 for systematic reviews and meta-analyses studying the effects of sex on cardiovascular outcomes in T2DM patients. Results from reviews were synthesized with a narrative synthesis, with tabular presentation of findings and forest plots for reviews that performed a meta-analysis.
Results
27 review articles evaluating sex differences in cardiovascular outcomes were included. Females with T2DM had higher risk of developing coronary heart disease (CHD; RRR: 1.52, 95%CI: 1.32–1.76, p < 0.001), acute coronary syndrome (ACS; RRR: 1.38, 95%CI: 1.25–1.52, p < 0.001), heart failure (RRR: 1.09, 95%CI: 1.05–1.13, p < 0.001) than males. Females had a higher risk of all-cause mortality (RRR: 1.13, 95%CI: 1.07–1.19, p < 0.001), cardiac mortality (RRR: 1.49, 95%CI: 1.11–2.00, p = 0.009) and CHD mortality (RRR: 1.44, 95%CI: 1.20–1.73, p < 0.001) as compared to males.
Conclusions
This umbrella review demonstrates that females with T2DM have a higher risk of cardiovascular outcomes than male counterparts. Future research should address the basis of this heterogeneity and epidemiological factors for better quality of evidence, and identify actionable interventions that will narrow these sex disparities.
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