The extracellular matrix (ECM) provides cells with positional information and a mechanical scaffold for adhesion and migration. It consists of collagens, glycoproteins, proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans and molecules that are bound specifically by the ECM, such as certain growth factors/cytokines, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and processing enzymes such as tissue transglutaminase and procollagen propeptidases. This finely tuned ecosystem is dysbalanced in chronic fibrogenesis, which can be regarded as a continuous wound-healing process and which results in scar formation. Importantly, the ECM directs cellular differentiation, migration, proliferation, and fibrogenic activation or deactivation. Partially via defined oligopeptide sequences or structural domains, the ECM transfers specific signals to cells that act in concert with growth factors/cytokines. These signals either confer stress activation, with a resultant fibrogenic response, or stress relaxation, with a fibrolytic response. Alternatively, ECM-derived peptides can modulate angiogenesis, or growth factor and MMP availability and activity. Current ECM-related antifibrotic strategies are based on the identification and in vivo application of ECM-derived biomodulatory peptides, peptide sequences, or their nonpeptidic mimetics. The latter open the opportunity of oral application and an extended biological half-life. Examples are peptides derived from collagens VI (stress activation) and XIV (stress relaxation), or collagenous consensus peptides that remove ECM-bound MMPs and growth factors. Furthermore, certain peptides can be used as targeting structures to the fibrogenic lesion.

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Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) is a downstream mediator of transforming growth factor-␤1 (TGF-␤1)and thus a potential target for antifibrotic treatment strategies. CTGF is up-regulated in disorders such as atherosclerosis, scleroderma, and fibrosis of kidneys and lungs. We investigated the temporospatial expression patterns of CTGF and TGF-␤1 mRNA in rat livers with acute fibrogenesis (after a single dose of CCl 4 ) and with advanced fibrosis (6 weeks after complete bile duct occlusion). Multiprobe ribonuclease protection assay revealed increasing TGF-␤1 and CTGF mRNA levels 6 hours after injection of CCl 4 , with peak levels after 72 hours. In biliary fibrosis TGF-␤1 and CTGF mRNA levels increased fourfold and sevenfold, respectively (P < 0.001). In situ hybridization combined with cell-specific markers revealed CTGF transcripts in desmin-positive cells after a single dose of carbon tetrachloride, whereas no transcripts were found in normal livers. In biliary fibrosis, however, proliferating bile duct epithelial cells were the predominant source of CTGF mRNA. We conclude that in rat liver fibrogenesis CTGF is up-regulated in close association with TGF-␤1 and that, contrary to a previous report, not solely hepatic stellate cells but ac- Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) is a cysteine-rich polypeptide identified originally in human umbilical vein endothelial cells by its chemotactic and mitogenic effects on fibroblasts.

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High levels of H3-(methyl)arginine 17 are associated with down-regulated metabolic gene expression in the prefrontal cortex of a subset of subjects with schizophrenia. Histone modifications may contribute to the pathogenesis of prefrontal dysfunction in schizophrenia.

rHuEPO effectively increased liver regeneration in rats after 70% liver resection and enhanced survival after 90% hepatectomy. Thus, rHuEPO may increase the regenerative capacity after major hepatectomy.