Summary In this study we compare the genetic ancestry of individuals from two as yet genetically unstudied cultural traditions in Estonia in the context of available modern and ancient datasets: 15 from the Late Bronze Age stone-cist graves (1200–400 BC) (EstBA), and 6 from the Pre-Roman Iron Age tarand cemeteries (800/500 BC–50 AD) (EstIA). We also included 5 Pre-Roman to Roman Iron Age Ingrian (500 BC–450 AD) (IngIA) and 7 Middle Age Estonian (1200–1600 AD) (EstMA) individuals to build a dataset for studying the demographic history of the northern parts of the Eastern Baltic from the earliest layer of Mesolithic to modern times. Our findings are consistent with EstBA receiving gene flow from regions with strong Western hunter-gatherer (WHG) affinities, and EstIA from populations related to modern Siberians. The latter inference is in accordance with Y chromosome (chrY) distributions in present-day populations of the Eastern Baltic, as well as patterns of autosomal variation in the majority of the westernmost Uralic speakers [1–5]. This ancestry reached the coasts of the Baltic Sea no later than the mid-first millennium BC; i.e. in the same time window as the diversification of west Uralic/Finnic languages [6]. Furthermore, phenotypic traits often associated with modern Northern Europeans like light eyes, hair and skin as well as lactose tolerance can be traced back to the Bronze Age in the Eastern Baltic.

Highlights d Four ancient Treponema pallidum genomes from early modern Europe were reconstructed d The genomes are highly diverse and include syphilis, yaws, and an unknown lineage d The new ancient T. pallidum lineage is a basal sister group to yaws and bejel d Molecular clock dating would allow a pre-Columbian origin of T. pallidum in Europe

There have been various explanations in archaeological literature about whether the earliest Bronze Age stone-cist graves and the first Pre-Roman Iron Age tarand graves in Estonia were built by locals or non-locals. As to possible immigrations, the stone-cist graves have been often related to Scandinavian populations, whilst early tarand graves allegedly had roots in eastern directions. The oldest known examples of these cemetery types are at Jõelähtme and Muuksi for stone-cist graves, and at Ilmandu and Kunda for early tarand graves, in the coastal zone of northern Estonia. In order to test the migration hypothesis we carried out a bioarchaeological study, measuring and mapping local biologically available Sr and O isotope ratios and analysing stable isotope signals of altogether eight individuals from these early stone-cist and tarand graves. The study material was chosen on the basis of the oldest AMS dates of skeletons available so far, or according to the earliest burial constructions in the cemeteries. Based on the comparison of local biologically available Sr and O isotopic baseline results and the results obtained from the individuals, we can talk about migrants in the case of two persons from Kunda and perhaps one from Muuksi, whilst most of the individuals analysed are of local origin. Thus, the idea of Early Metal Period migrations to Estonia from the surrounding regions is supported to some extent. However, the discussion of these migrations might turn out to be surprisingly different from what is expected on the basis of material culture. We also emphasise the importance of further analysis, especially mapping isotopic baseline data in the eastern Baltics, in order to draw further conclusions about the directions and extent of prehistoric migration in this region.

The article presents the results of osteological analysis and radiocarbon dating of the bones from Jaani stone grave(s) at Väo, excavated in 1982. The study of human bones revealed the remains of at least 38 individuals of various age groups. Due to heavy fragmentation and intermingling of bones, it was possible to reconstruct only one skeleton in cist A, while the distribution, location and details of burial mode for other inhumations remain questionable. Zooarchaeological analysis revealed a pattern generally compatible with other contemporary sites, but unexpectedly, a radiocarbon date of a sheep bone turned out to be recent, suggesting caution in interpretation and need for more frequent 14 C-dating of animal remains. Radiocarbon dates of the human remains show that stone-cist grave B was present in the Late Bronze Age, but grave A probably originates from the Early Pre-Roman Iron Age (5th c. BC) and may thus be one of the latest stone-cist graves in Estonia. We were unable to radiocarbon-date the original bone deposit of the ship grave, but it is nevertheless likely that the ship is (one of) the oldest structure(s) at the site. The site also includes interments from Roman, Migration and Pre-Viking periods, when it was probably reserved for predominantly child and infant burials. A few deposits of burnt human bone from at least three individuals perhaps also date from this use-phase.

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This paper reports a case study of 43 fetuses and perinates from four mass graves and two double burials from the cemetery of St. Jacob in Tartu (SE Estonia). The burials were dated to the 13th–15th centuries AD and located outside the cemetery walls, and likely can be linked to historically recorded episodes of famine and epidemic in medieval Livonia. All individuals belonged to the fetal and perinatal age categories, meaning they were either aborted or died around the time of birth. Ten perinates of these 43 individuals displayed skeletal evidence for systemic metabolic disease. The results of the bioarchaeological investigation provide insights into the effects upheavals of the time had on the weakest members of the society, especially the vulnerability of pregnant and lactating mothers to undernutrition and infections, and shed light on how the prematurely deceased were treated in this urban community. This may potentially explain the burial location. This work is the first detailed paleopathological study of non‐adults in medieval Estonia and the Baltic region, opening the way for further research on similar material in this geographical area.

Two ancient Egyptian child mummies at the University of Tartu Art Museum (Estonia) were, according to museum records, brought to Estonia by the young Baltic-German scholar Otto Friedrich von Richter, who had travelled in Egypt during the early 19th century. Although some studies of the mummies were conducted, a thorough investigation has never been made. Thus, an interdisciplinary team of experts studied the remains using the most recent analytical methods in order to provide an exhaustive analysis of the remains. The bodies were submitted for osteological and archaeothanatological study, radiological investigation, AMS radiocarbon dating, chemical and textile analyses, 3D modelling, entomological as well as aDNA investigation. Here we synthesize the results of one of the most extensive multidisciplinary analyses of ancient Egyptian child mummies, adding significantly to our knowledge of such examples of ancient funerary practices.

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