Animal abuse frequently occurs at the same time and the same place as other types of violence, particularly family violence. Because of that close association, this article proposes that it is the responsibility of both animal service and human service professionals to be aware of its occurrence, understand its significance, and promote appropriate professional and policy responses to it. Research literature addressing the link between animal abuse and other forms of violence (“the link”) is discussed. Articles selected for review were published in a peer-reviewed journal, relevant to some aspect of the link between animal abuse and child abuse and/or domestic violence, used either a national or a longitudinal database, or relied on random sampling or a comparison group. If a study was retrospective or drawn from a convenience sample, it had to have been replicated by another study for inclusion. Finally, any measurement instruments used by the study under review must have had acceptable reliability and validity. Legal databases, such as LexisNexis, were used to identify legislation that has been passed and/or court cases that have been decided that were relevant to the topic of “the link.” Strong associations were found between domestic violence, child abuse, and animal abuse; animal abuse, whether witnessed or committed, is a form of trauma. Severe animal abuse as a predictor for severe domestic violence recently emerged as a promising association. However, some of these findings on “the link” have not been translated into practice, for example, domestic violence advocates and child protection workers frequently do not ask questions about pets in the family. At the same time, the past 20 years have seen an increase in state and federal legislation and policies that have been enacted, in part, because of the growing body of evidence on the link. Knowledge of the link also has influenced a number of court cases deciding parental rights. Moreover, awareness of the link is illustrated by the passage of pet protection orders for victims of domestic violence as well as the inclusion of pet abuse as a form of domestic violence. Human service and animal service professionals should articulate more ways in which they can communicate with one another, thus adding more information and resources to any intervention or treatment of family violence.

Animal sexual abuse (ASA) involves harm inflicted on animals for the purposes of human sexual gratification and includes such terms as bestiality, zoophilia, zoosadism, animal sexual assault, and others. The prevalence of ASA is not known, although it may be more common than is currently perceived. Veterinarians have the skills required to identify and document cases of ASA. This article reviews the terminology, legal definitions and forms of ASA, and its social and psychological context. An investigative approach is outlined, including an alternate light source examination; collection of swabs for DNA analysis; sampling vaginal washes, rectal washes, and toenails for trace evidence and biologic analyses; radiographic studies; and a complete forensic necropsy, including histopathology. Gross lesions identified in ASA victims include injuries to the anus, rectum, penis, scrotum, nipples, and vagina; the presence of foreign bodies; and abrasions, bruising, and other evidence of nonaccidental injury. Specialized procedures, including examination using alternate light sources and screening tests to identify human seminal fluid within samples from ASA victims, are of potential value but have not been validated for use in animals.

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In veterinary forensics, non-accidental injury (NAI) refers to trauma arising from physical abuse of an animal. The legal definition of animal abuse varies among jurisdictions, but a common definition is a socially unacceptable behavior that causes unnecessary pain, suffering or distress to and/or the death of an animal [1]. Animal abuse causes pain and suffering for animals, it can cause psychological distress for people, and it is known to be associated with other violent and non-violent crimes [2-4]. In addition, the behavior is not a new phenomenon and evidence for NAI has been found in the archaeological record [5]. Thorough analysis of nonaccidental trauma to animals can assist investigators better understand the chronology and other facts associated with a crime of animal abuse. Forensic veterinarians can work with forensic anthropologists to add detailed understanding of an animal's injury pattern. 1.1 | Non-accidental injury characteristics in dogs Some injuries are obviously associated with NAI such as cigarette and microwave burns. Others, such as contusions, lacerations, and fractures, are common in accidental injury [6]. In cases where cause of injury is ambiguous, further evidence is required to support a diagnosis of NAI. Recognizing this need, several investigators have published work which provides a framework for diagnosing NAI. For example, in a review of radiographic features of fractures in 19 dogs with abuse fractures and 135 dogs with accidental fractures, some radiographic commonalities were found [7]. Radiographic findings indicated that the following five features should raise the index of suspicion of and support a diagnosis of NAI: (a) the presence of multiple fractures; (b) fractures occurring on more than one region of the body (forelimb, hindlimb, and axial); (c) transverse fractures; (d) fractures presenting at a later stage of healing (delayed presentation); and (d) multiple fractures at different stages of healing [7].