Herpesviruses are characterized by their ability to maintain life-long latent infections in their animal hosts. However, the mechanisms that allow establishment and maintenance of the latent state remain poorly understood. Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) establishes latency in neurons of sensory ganglia, where the only abundant viral gene product is a non-coding RNA, the latency associated transcript (LAT)1,2. Here, we show that LAT functions as a primary microRNA (miRNA) precursor that encodes four distinct miRNAs in HSV-1 infected cells. One of these miRNAs, miR-H2-3p, is transcribed antisense to ICP0, a viral immediate-early transcriptional activator thought to play a key role in productive HSV-1 replication and reactivation from latency3. miR-H2-3p is indeed able to reduce ICP0 protein expression, but does not significantly affect ICP0 mRNA levels. We also identified a fifth HSV-1 miRNA in latently infected trigeminal ganglia, miR-H6, which derives from a previously unknown transcript distinct from LAT. miR-H6 displays extended seed complementarity to the mRNA encoding a second HSV-1 transcription factor, ICP4, and inhibits expression of ICP4, which is required for expression of most HSV-1 genes during productive infection4. These results may explain the reported ability of LAT to promote latency5-9. Thus, HSV-1 expresses at least two primary miRNA precursors in latently infected neurons that may facilitate the establishment and maintenance of viral latency by post-transcriptionally regulating viral gene expression.

Certain viruses use microRNAs (miRNAs) to regulate the expression of their own genes, host genes, or both. Previous studies have identified a limited number of miRNAs expressed by herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and -2), some of which are conserved between these two viruses. To more comprehensively analyze the miRNAs expressed by HSV-1 or HSV-2 during productive and latent infection, we applied a massively parallel sequencing approach. We were able to identify 16 and 17 miRNAs expressed by HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively, including all previously known species, and a number of previously unidentified virus-encoded miRNAs. The genomic positions of most miRNAs encoded by these two viruses are within or proximal to the latencyassociated transcript region. Nine miRNAs are conserved in position and/or sequence, particularly in the seed region, between these two viruses. Interestingly, we did not detect an HSV-2 miRNA homolog of HSV-1 miR-H1, which is highly expressed during productive infection, but we did detect abundant expression of miR-H6, whose seed region is conserved with HSV-1 miR-H1 and might represent a functional analog. We also identified a highly conserved miRNA family arising from the viral origins of replication. In addition, we detected several pairs of complementary miRNAs and we found miRNA-offset RNAs (moRs) arising from the precursors of HSV-1 and HSV-2 miR-H6 and HSV-2 miR-H4. Our results reveal elements of miRNA conservation and divergence that should aid in identifying miRNA functions.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are key regulators of gene expression in higher eukaryotes. Recently, miRNAs have been identified from viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes. To attempt to identify miRNAs encoded by herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), we applied a computational method to screen the complete genome of HSV-1 for sequences that adopt an extended stem-loop structure and display a pattern of nucleotide divergence characteristic of known miRNAs. Using this method, we identified 11 HSV-1 genomic loci predicted to encode 13 miRNA precursors and 24 miRNA candidates. Eight of the HSV-1 miRNA candidates were predicted to be conserved in HSV-2. The precursor and the mature form of one HSV-1 miRNA candidate, which is encoded ϳ450 bp upstream of the transcription start site of the latency-associated transcript (LAT), were detected during infection of Vero cells by Northern blot hybridization. These RNAs, which behave as late gene products, are not predicted to be conserved in HSV-2. Additionally, small RNAs, including some that are roughly the expected size of precursor miRNAs, were detected using probes for miRNA candidates derived from sequences encoding the 8.3-kilobase LAT, from sequences complementary to U L 15 mRNA, and from the region between ICP4 and U S 1. However, no species the size of typical mature miRNAs were detected using these probes. Three of these latter miRNA candidates were predicted to be conserved in HSV-2. Thus, HSV-1 encodes at least one miRNA. We hypothesize that HSV-1 miRNAs regulate viral and host gene expression.MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are noncoding small RNA molecules with important regulatory functions in higher eukaryotic development and gene expression (reviewed in references 2 and 5). The vast majority of known mature miRNAs are about 21 to 23 nucleotides (nt) long. They are derived from longer pol II (19) or pol III (25) primary transcripts (pri-miRNAs) that are processed in the nucleus by the RNase III enzyme Drosha. The excised fold-back precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA) is typically 60 to 80 nt long and assumes a stem-loop structure with an imperfectly duplexed stem. Pre-miRNA is then exported to the cytoplasm by the export factor Exportin 5 (39). The pre-miRNA is later cleaved by the RNase III enzyme Dicer to excise the miRNA in the form of a small interfering RNA (siRNA)-like duplex (16) which then unwinds, leaving one 21-to 23-nt strand energetically favored to enter the multiprotein RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). The other strand is usually degraded. Mature miRNAs in RISC regulate protein-coding gene expression via the RNA silencing machinery, typically by forming imperfect duplexes with target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) (reviewed in references 2 and 5).

Extensive detail on the application of the real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (QPCR) for the analysis of gene expression is provided in this unit. The protocols are designed for high-throughput, 384-well-format instruments, such as the Applied Biosystems 7900HT, but may be modified to suit any real-time PCR instrument. QPCR primer and probe design and validation are discussed, and three relative quantitation methods are described: the standard curve method, the efficiency-corrected DeltaCt method, and the comparative cycle time, or DeltaDeltaCt method. In addition, a method is provided for absolute quantification of RNA in unknown samples. RNA standards are subjected to RT-PCR in the same manner as the experimental samples, thus accounting for the reaction efficiencies of both procedures. This protocol describes the production and quantitation of synthetic RNA molecules for real-time and non-real-time RT-PCR applications.

This unit presents a specific and sensitive quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) method for measuring individual microRNAs (miRNAs) in tissue or cultured cells. MiRNAs are 17 – 24 nucleotides (nt) in length. Standard and quantitative PCR methods require a template that is at least twice the length of either of the specific forward or reverse primers, each typically ∼ 20 nt in length. Thus, the target minimum length is ≥ 40 nt, making miRNAs too short for standard RT-qPCR methods. In this assay, each of the RT-qPCR nucleic acid reagents, including the RT-primer, the forward and reverse PCR primers, and the hydrolysis probe, contain design features that, together, optimize miRNA specificity and assay sensitivity. The RT-primer contains a highly stable stem-loop structure that lengthens the target cDNA. The forward PCR primer adds additional length with nucleotides that optimize its melting temperature (Tm) and enhance assay specificity. The reverse primer disrupts the stem loop. Assay specificity is further optimized by placement of the probe over much of the original miRNA sequence, and the probe Tm is optimized by addition of a minor groove binding (MGB) moiety.