Calcium phosphate materials such as hydroxyapatite (HA) or tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) are highly attractive due to their multitude of applications in bone replacement as well as their environmental and ecological credentials. In this research, quail, hen, duck, and pigeon eggshells were used as a calcium source to obtain calcium phosphate materials via the environmentally friendly wet synthesis. Using the eggshells with the organic membrane, the biphasic calcium phosphate materials composed mainly of HA were obtained. The second mineral phase was β-TCP in the case of using quail, hen, and pigeon eggshells and octacalcium phosphate (OCP) in the case of duck eggshells. The HA content in the obtained materials depended on the amount of membrane in the eggshells and decreased in the order of pigeon, duck, hen, and quail eggshells. The eggshell membrane removal from the eggshells caused the reduced content of HA and the presence of the more soluble β-TCP or OCP phase in the obtained materials. The calcium ions release profile in the PBS buffer indicates the potential biomedical application of these materials.

Using the hen eggshells (biowaste) as a source of calcium and an environmentally friendly approach, the nanopowder composed of 74% of hydroxyapatite (HA) and 26% of β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) was obtained. Due to the maximum reduction of the stages associated with the use of chemicals and energy, this method can be considered as economically and environmentally friendly. A well-developed surface area and the negative zeta potential at pH above 3.5 indicate good adsorption properties of this material. The obtained material shows high adsorption capacity towards Cu 2+ ions, i.e. 105.4 mg/g at pH 5. Good fit of the Langmuir adsorption model and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model may indicate chemical adsorption probably due to the electrostatic interactions between the Cu 2+ cations and the negatively charged phosphate and hydroxyl groups on the material surface.

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In this study raw hen's eggshells were used as a calcium source for calcium phosphate mineral synthesis. The materials composed of brushite and different amounts of HA (hydroxyapatite) and β-TCP (β-tricalcium phosphate) with the needle-like, sheet-like and hexagonal structures were synthesized in the presence of the microwave. It was found that the time of microwave action, temperature and initial pH are parameters affecting the morphology and composition of the obtained materials, i.e. the increasing duration of MW exposure increases the amount of HA increases, whereas the temperature increase causes an increase in the contents of brushite and β-TCP. The lowering of initial pH leads to an increase in the brushite content.

In this study, calcium phosphate materials were obtained via a simple, eco-friendly wet synthesis method using hen eggshells as a calcium source. It was shown that Zn ions were successfully incorporated into hydroxyapatite (HA). The obtained ceramic composition depends on the zinc content. When doped with 10 mol % of Zn, in addition to HA and Zn-doped HA, DCPD (dicalcium phosphate dihydrate) appeared and its content increased with the increase in Zn concentration. All doped HA materials exhibited antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. coli. Nevertheless, fabricated samples significantly decreased preosteoblast (MC3T3-E1 Subclone 4) viability in vitro, exerting a cytotoxic effect which probably resulted from their high ionic reactivity.