JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. . Wiley and Society for Research in Child Development are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Child Development. BAR-TAL, DANIEL; RAVIV, ALONA; and GOLDBERG, MARTA. Helping Behavior among Preschool Children: An Observational Study. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1982, 53, 396-402. The present study describes helping behavior of preschool children. 156 children between the ages of 18and 76 months were observed 3 times for 10 min each, during their free play activity. The observers coded each helping act (whether it was performed in play or in reality) and noted its form (sharing, giving, aiding, and comforting), circumstances (self-initiation, compliance, and imitation), and condition (no promise of a reward, promise of social reward, promise of tangible reward and threat). The children were divided into 5 age groups. The results showed that, in general, helping behavior did not increase with age. But, with age, children performed fewer helping acts in imaginative play situations and more real helping acts. Also, with age, children performed more real comforting acts and fewer real giving acts. With regard to the other categories, no age differences were found.

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The present study utilises a phenomenological approach to investigating individuals' attribution of success or failure. On the basis of the assumption that individuals use various causes to explain their successes or failures and attach to them different meaning, the present study collected a list of causes used by males and females of low and middle-upper socio-economic class. Subjects from these four demographic groups were later asked to rate the identified causes on the dimensions of locus of casuality, stability and controllability. In addition, the subjects were asked to use the same causes while making attributions to their grade achieved at the end of a trimester. The comparisons among the four groups showed that the two SES groups were similar with regard to their rating of the causes on the three dimensions. The meaning of the results for further research of casual perception of success and failure is discussed.

The present study investigated the effects of deindividuating conditions (i.e., anonymity) on the behaviors and feelings of self-differentiated and less selfdifferentiated individuals. Subjects were divided on the basis of their scores on the Portable Rod and Frame Test into self-differentiated and undifferentiated groups. Each subject was exposed to transgressive and prosocial behavior of two group members who were confederates. The exposure to the models' behavior occurred under conditions of anonymity or identifiability. Additionally, measures of subjects' feelings were taken. The data indicate that relative to identifiability conditions, the transgressions and prosocial actions of the models had stronger effects on the behaviors of undifferentiated subjects under anonymity conditions. Also, undifferentiated subjects felt less self-conscious and less inhibited under anonymity than identifiability conditions. The behaviors and feelings of selfdifferentiated subjects were relatively unaffected by the anonymity-identifiability manipulation. The implications of these findings are discussed and a conceptual link between self-differentiation, self-awareness, and deindividuation is proposed.The idea that under some conditions individuals may lose their sense of unique self, and may engage in counternormative behaviors is not new in social psychology (e.g., LeBon, 1896). Zimbardo (1969) has developed this idea into a theory of deindividuation, in which he argues that a specific set of input conditions (e.g., anonymity) leads to a state of deindividuation that is characterized by certain internal states (e.g., minimal self-consciousness) and is followed by behaviors that reflect lowering of personal restraints. Research spurred by Zimbardo's conceptualization has followed this line of reasoning by linking conceptually-relevant antecedent conditions (e.g., anonymity) with behavioral consequences (e.g., aggression)

Background Since March 2020, the world has been coping with the COVID-19 pandemic. One group particularly affected were mothers of newborns. The Israeli government imposed three lockdowns, with the first from 14 March to 11 May 2020. It had the strictest rules, with effects among mothers including panic and stress. These mothers coped with new challenges as they were often without help from the extended family, could not meet lactation counsellors in person, and stayed longer on maternity leave. Methods A cross-sectional, observational study collected data via an online anonymous survey in Israel. From 27 April 2020 to 11 May 2020, the survey was distributed through Facebook groups for breastfeeding mothers. It contained 32 multiple choice and 10 open questions. Multivariate logistic regression analysis, with adjustment for potential factors, was performed to determine the pandemic-related factors influencing breastfeeding, including the decision to breastfeed longer than planned. Results Five hundred eighty women participated in the survey. Most mothers were over 30, (mean age 32.55), married with an academic degree (81.5%). 127 (22%) women reported changes in their lactation plans. 85 (15%) responded that due to the COVID -19 pandemic they extended their breastfeeding period and 42 (7%) reported shortening it. A significant relationship was found between this extension and returning to work later than expected adjusted OR = 2.38 95% CI 1.46,3.87). When asked to rank steps national health authorities should take to encourage breastfeeding, the highest agreement (96%) was with maternity leave extension. More than 90% believed that receiving breastfeeding counselling at home and/or in hospital will encourage breastfeeding. Conclusions This study demonstrated that most women did not change their breastfeeding patterns because of the lockdown though some did experience difficulties. Some lengthened their breastfeeding period, as, due to the pandemic, they stayed home longer than expected. This finding should be considered for future emergency situations.