Legislators and advocates claim that pay secrecy perpetuates the gender wage gap and that the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) should be amended to outlaw these practices. Using a difference‐in‐differences fixed‐effects human‐capital wage regression, I find that women with higher education levels who live in states that have outlawed pay secrecy have higher earnings, and that the wage gap is consequently reduced. State bans on pay secrecy and federal legislation to amend the FLSA to allow workers to share information about their wages may improve the gender wage gap, especially among women with college or graduate degrees.

Regulatory agencies require testing of chemicals and products to protect workers and consumers from potential eye injury hazards. Animal screening, such as the rabbit Draize test, for potential environmental toxicants is time-consuming and costly. Therefore, virtual screening using computational models to tag potential ocular toxicants is attractive to toxicologists and policy makers. We have developed quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) models for a set of small molecules with animal ocular toxicity data compiled by the National Toxicology Program Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods. The data set was initially curated by removing duplicates, mixtures, and inorganics. The remaining 75 compounds were used to develop QSAR models. We applied both k nearest neighbor and random forest statistical approaches in combination with Dragon and Molecular Operating Environment descriptors. Developed models were validated on an external set of 34 compounds collected from additional sources. The external correct classification rates (CCR) of all individual models were between 72 and 87%. Furthermore, the consensus model, based on the prediction average of individual models, showed additional improvement (CCR = 0.93). The validated models could be used to screen external chemical libraries and prioritize chemicals for in vivo screening as potential ocular toxicants.

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In addition to facing earnings penalties because of their race and additional penalties because of their gender, black women appear to suffer a small but additional penalty because of the intersection of their race and gender. Black women have larger gender than race penalties. Although black men have greater racial penalties than do black women, black women experience larger earnings losses because in addition to racial penalties they face gender and race-gender interaction penalties. BLACK WORKERS CONTINUE TO EARN LESS than white workers. On average, black men who work full time and year round receive 75 percent of white men's weekly earnings, while black women earn 84 percent of white women's and 89 percent of black men's earnings. 1 Although numerous studies have examined racial earnings disparities, fewer studies have investigated black women's earnings penalties or have compared the earnings penalties of black women with those of black men. As a result, many questions have not been fully addressed. Are black women in fact underpaid, and if so, to what extent is this due to their race and ⁄ or to their gender? How do gender and race interact for black women? How do their earnings penalties compare to those of black men? Why do some studies find race penalties for black women while others do not? I address these issues by using standard earnings decompositions in a novel way to examine the extent to which black women are underpaid due to their gender separately from their race and how the intersection of both their gender and race affects their earnings. These results are compared to the earnings penalties of black men. I also investigate a number of different econometric specifications in order to determine why research on earnings penalties by race has reached different conclusions regarding black women.The surprising results indicate that black women are underpaid because of their race and their gender and that the sum of these two penalties is less than the total amount of the earnings penalties they face. This suggests that the 466

Standard economic and compensation theories suggest that voluntary turnover should decline when a firm pays wages that are higher than those of its competitors. Turnover behavior in the State of California's Civil Service, however, does not support this prediction. Using a fixed-effects estimator to control for job-specific characteristics, I find that the wages California pays relative to those of its competitors has little or no effect on turnover. In addition, estimates of the elasticity of turnover with respect to alternative wages indicate that higher wage rates do not pay for themselves through lower turnover costs. Instead, the absolute wage level and wage growth have large effects. In other words, it appears that workers are less likely to quit jobs that pay high wages and have larger wage increases no matter how their wages compare with those paid by other employers.