The paper analyzes the potential impact of blockchain technology and smart contracts on the shipping industry. As the shipping industry represents a complex system of various actions that have to be controlled and registered, blockchain technology could serve as a tool to allow the streamlining of numerous processes, whilst at the same time taking the human factor out of multiple elements where trust between involved parties is an issue. The authors therefore first present how blockchain technology works and what smart contracts are, in order to give an insight into their applicability in the shipping sector. After a general overview of the technological and legal characteristics of blockchain technology and smart contracts, the authors present examples of relevant subjects, relations, and contracts in the shipping industry. Based on the charter party, a key contract in the shipping industry, the authors present the existing problems which could potentially be solved using blockchain technology. Besides the benefits of blockchain technologies, the authors furthermore point out the existing deficiencies that still make blockchain technology hard to apply in legal relations within the shipping industry. Based on these insights, the authors highlight the current developments in this area and present the existing and expected regulatory reforms of blockchain solutions and smart contracts within the European Union.
The new European regulatory framework for crypto-assets contains strict reporting requirements for EU-based crypto service providers, which will give tax authorities and law enforcement agencies better insights into a significant segment of the cryptoasset space. The article first outlines how this will inevitably lead to the creation of a parallel crypto-asset market focused on offline wallets and peer-to-peer services outside the supervision of EU and national tax authorities. The article then highlights the important role that the so-called Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) will play in this environment. The differences between CBDCs and crypto-assets are examined from a tax assessment perspective in order to show that true anonymity is considerably less of an issue with (price stable) CBDCs than with (volatile) crypto-assets. The authors argue that a truly anonymous digital euro wallet for small transactions on the consumer side could not only allow the effective monitoring of businesses, but would actually increase tax compliance. If consumers have access to an anonymous cash-equivalent digital means of payment, they will be less likely to use cash or virtual currency. This in turn will cause a significant increase in available transaction data, while simultaneously granting a much better protection of taxpayers’ rights to privacy in the EU. cryptocurrency, crypto-asset, AML, taxation, CBDC, digital euro, privacy, taxpayer rights, tax assessment, wallet, reporting standards
Odgovornost banke za provođenje elektroničkog plaćanja u ovom se radu obrađuje imajući u vidu da suvremena plaćanja redovito podrazumijevaju (1) više radnji koje se obavljaju uz uporabu elektroničkih komunikacijskih sredstava – pa je umjesno govoriti o provođenju plaćanja, umjesto o pla- ćanju – (2) postojanje pravnih odnosa između platitelja i prve banke i pri- matelja plaćanja i druge banke, (3) radnje koje poduzimaju obje banke, i (4) primjenu Zakona o platnom prometu. S obzirom na posljednju okolnost i činjenicu da Zakon o platnom prometu rabi složenu i za hrvatski pravni jezik netipičnu terminologiju u prvom dijelu rada daju se jezična objašnjenja i ta terminologija usklađuje s postojećim pravnim standardima i nastoji uklopiti u te standarde. U ovom dijelu rada također se objašnjavaju činjenična pitanja - u vezi s elektroničkim komunikacijskim sredstvima koja se rabe pri plaćanjima – nužna za pravnu kvalifikaciju radnji koje se poduzimaju pri plaćanjima i pravnih odnosa koji postoje ili nastaju. Za razumijevanje odgovornosti odnosno pravnih posljedica bilo je potrebno izložiti i sadržaj bančinih obveza, a u središnjem dijelu rada izlažu se moguće pravne posljedice bančina nesipunjenja, zakašnjenja i neurednog ispunjenja obveza. U tom dijelu prika- zuju se i analiziraju pravne posljedice predviđene Zakonom o platnom prometu – kao specijalnog propisa koji ih uređuje samo djelomično – i povezuju se, uklapaju i promatraju u kontekstu općih pravila ugovornog prava Zakona o obveznim odnosima.
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