Background Chronic neuropathic pain resulting from neuronal damage remains difficult to treat, in part due to incomplete understanding of underlying cellular mechanisms. We have previously shown that inward Ca2+ flux (ICa) across the sensory neuron plasmalemma is decreased in a rodent model of chronic neuropathic pain, but the direct consequence of this loss of ICa on function of the sensory neuron has not been defined. We therefore examined the extent to which altered membrane properties after nerve injury, especially increased excitability that may contribute to chronic pain, are attributable to diminished Ca2+ entry. Methods Intracellular microelectrode measurements were obtained from A-type neurons of dorsal root ganglia excised from control rats and those with neuropathic pain behavior following spinal nerve ligation. Recording conditions were varied to suppress or promote ICa while biophysical parameters and excitability were determined. Results Both lowered external bath Ca2+ concentration and blockade of ICa with bath cadmium diminished the duration and area of the afterhyperpolarization (AHP), accompanied by decreased current threshold for action potential (AP) initiation and increased repetitive firing during sustained depolarization. Reciprocally, elevated bath Ca2+ increased the AHP and suppressed repetitive firing. Voltage sag during neuronal hyperpolarization, indicative of the cation-nonselective H-current, diminished with lowered bath Ca2+, cadmium application, or chelation of intracellular Ca2+. Additional recordings with selective blockers of ICa subtypes showed that N-, P/Q, L-, and R-type currents each contribute to generation of the AHP, and that blockade of any of these as well as the T-type current slows the AP upstroke, prolongs the AP duration, and (except for L-type current) decreases the current threshold for AP initiation. Conclusions Taken together, our findings show that suppression of ICa decreases the AHP, reduces the hyperpolarization-induced voltage sag, and increases excitability in sensory neurons, replicating changes that follow peripheral nerve trauma. This suggests that the loss of ICa previously demonstrated in injured sensory neurons contributes to their dysfunction and hyperexcitability, and may lead to neuropathic pain. Implications Statement Loss of inward Ca2+ current in A-type neurons, such as follows peripheral nerve injury, contributes to increased sensory neuron excitability. Measures that increase inward Ca2+ flux may potentially be therapeutic for painful peripheral neuropathy.

In various excitable tissues, the hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated current (I h ) contributes to burst firing by depolarizing the membrane after a period of hyperpolarization. Alternatively, conductance through open channels I h channels of the resting membrane may impede excitability. Since primary sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglion show both loss of I h and elevated excitability after peripheral axonal injury, we examined the contribution of I h to excitability of these neurons. We used a sharp electrode intracellular technique to record from neurons in nondissociated ganglia to avoid potential artefacts due to tissue dissociation and cytosolic dialysis. Neurons were categorized by conduction velocity. I h induced by hyperpolarizing voltage steps was completely blocked by ZD7288 (approximately 10μM), which concurrently eliminated the depolarizing sag of transmembrane potential during hyperpolarizing current injection. I h was most prominent in rapidly conducting Aα/β neurons, in which ZD7288 produced resting membrane hyperpolarization, slowed conduction velocity, prolonged action potential (AP) duration, and elevated input resistance. The rheobase current necessary to trigger an AP was elevated and repetitive firing was inhibited by ZD7288, indicating an excitatory influence of I h . Less I h was evident in more slowly conducting Aδ neurons, resulting in diminished effects of ZD7288 on AP parameters. Repetitive firing in these neurons was also inhibited by ZD7288, and the peak frequency of AP transmission during tetanic bursts was diminished by ZD7288. Slowly conducting C-type neurons showed minimal I h , and no effect of ZD7288 on excitability was seen. After spinal nerve ligation, axotomized neurons had less I h compared to control neurons and showed minimal effects of ZD7288 application. We conclude that I h supports sensory neuron excitability, and loss of I h is not a factor contributing to increased neuronal excitability after peripheral axonal injury.

Background Painful nerve injury leads to disrupted Ca2+ signaling in primary sensory neurons, including decreased endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ storage. The present study examines potential causes and functional consequences of Ca2+ store limitation after injury. Methods Neurons were dissociated from axotomized fifth lumbar (L5) and the adjacent L4 dorsal root ganglia following L5 spinal nerve ligation that produced hyperalgesia, and were compared to neurons from control animals. Intracellular Ca2+ levels were measured with Fura-2 microfluorometry, and ER was labeled with probes or antibodies. Ultrastructural morphology was analyzed by electron microscopy of nondissociated dorsal root ganglia, and intracellular electrophysiological recordings were obtained from intact ganglia. Results Live neuron staining with BODIPY FL-X thapsigargin (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) revealed a 40% decrease in sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase binding in axotomized L5 neurons and a 34% decrease in L4 neurons. Immunocytochemical labeling for the ER Ca2+-binding protein calreticulin was unaffected by injury. Total length of ER profiles in electron micrographs was reduced by 53% in small axotomized L5 neurons, but increased in L4 neurons. Cisternal stacks of ER and aggregation of ribosomes occurred less frequently in axotomized neurons. Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release, examined by microfluorometry with dantrolene, was eliminated in axotomized neurons. Pharmacologic blockade of Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release with dantrolene produced hyperexcitability in control neurons, confirming its functional importance. Conclusions After axotomy, ER Ca2+ stores are reduced by anatomic loss and possibly diminished sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase. The resulting disruption of Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release and protein synthesis may contribute to the generation of neuropathic pain.

We have previously shown that a decrease of inward Ca 2+ flux (I Ca ) across the sensory neuron plasmalemma, such as happens after axotomy, elevates neuronal excitability. From this, we predicted that increasing I Ca in injured neurons should correct their hyperexcitability, which we have tested during recording from A-type neurons in non-dissociated dorsal root ganglia after spinal nerve ligation, using an intracellular recording technique. When bath Ca 2+ level was elevated to promote I Ca , the afterhyperpolarization was decreased and repetitive firing was suppressed, which also followed amplification of Ca 2+ -activated K + current with selective agents NS1619 and NS309. Lowered external bath Ca 2+ concentration had opposite effects, similar to previous observations in uninjured neurons. These findings indicate that at least a part of the hyperexcitability of somatic sensory neurons after axotomy is attributable to diminished inward Ca 2+ flux, and that measures to restore I Ca may potentially be therapeutic for painful peripheral neuropathy.Implications Statement: Restoring I Ca in injured A-type sensory neurons leads to decreased neuronal excitability. Increasing inward Ca 2+ flux may potentially be therapeutic for painful peripheral neuropathy.

Background Ca2+ is the dominant second messenger in primary sensory neurons. In addition, disrupted Ca2+ signaling is a prominent feature in pain models involving peripheral nerve injury. Standard cytoplasmic Ca2+ recording techniques use high K+ or field stimulation and dissociated neurons. To compare findings in intact dorsal root ganglia, we used a method of simultaneous electrophysiologic and microfluorimetric recording. Methods Dissociated neurons were loaded by bath-applied Fura-2-AM and subjected to field stimulation. Alternatively, we adapted a technique in which neuronal somata of intact ganglia were loaded with Fura-2 through an intracellular microelectrode that provided simultaneous membrane potential recording during activation by action potentials (APs) conducted from attached dorsal roots. Results Field stimulation at levels necessary to activate neurons generated bath pH changes through electrolysis and failed to predictably drive neurons with AP trains. In the intact ganglion technique, single APs produced measurable Ca2+ transients that were fourfold larger in presumed nociceptive C-type neurons than in nonnociceptive Aβ-type neurons. Unitary Ca2+ transients summated during AP trains, forming transients with amplitudes that were highly dependent on stimulation frequency. Each neuron was tuned to a preferred frequency at which transient amplitude was maximal. Transients predominantly exhibited monoexponential recovery and had sustained plateaus during recovery only with trains of more than 100 APs. Nerve injury decreased Ca2+ transients in C-type neurons, but increased transients in Aβ-type neurons. Conclusions Refined observation of Ca2+ signaling is possible through natural activation by conducted APs in undissociated sensory neurons and reveals features distinct to neuronal types and injury state.

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