In recent experiments (Q. Lai, C. H. Shea, & M. Little, 2000; C. H. Shea, G. Wulf, J. Park, & B. Gaunt, 2001), auditory models were found to be effective in enhancing relative-timing performance and learning in constant practice conditions. In the present experiment, the authors examined (a) whether an auditory model also enhances relative-timing learning in blocked and random practice conditions and (b) whether experience with the auditory model enhances participants' ability to produce the response by using different effector sequences. Participants (N = 48) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 acquisition conditions in which an auditory model was or was not present and the practice schedule was blocked or random. In the acquisition phase, all participants alternately pressed 2 keys on a keyboard in an attempt to match 5 goal intervals. In the auditory model conditions, a sequence of tones was played before each acquisition trial. The tones represented the correct timing sequence for that trial. One retention and 3 effector-transfer tests without feedback were administered about 24 hr after the completion of acquisition. The results indicated that the auditory model enhanced relative-timing performance and learning independently of practice schedule. In addition, the auditory model enhanced relative timing on the effector-transfer tests, but absolute-timing performance and learning were not affected by the auditory model. Thus, relative timing was found to be effector independent but absolute timing was not.
The purposes of the present experiment were to determine (a) whether an auditory model enhanced relative or absolute timing, (b) the extent to which the reduced frequency presentation of the auditory model resulted in enhanced retention, and (c) the degree to which executing the timing sequence was independent of the role of the effectors in carrying out the movement sequence. Participants (N = 45) were asked to alternately press two keys on a computer keyboard in an attempt to match the goal intervals presented on the computer monitor. Groups differed in terms of the frequency with which an auditory model (100, 50, or 0%) was presented. The results indicated that the auditory model (100% or 50% groups) enhanced relative timing performance and learning but not the learning of absolute timing. In addition, the 50% group did not appear to become dependent on the auditory model. However, significant decrements in performance were seen for the 100% group when the model was withdrawn. Last, participants were able to execute the timing sequences equally well when they reversed the hand used to execute the timing sequence. This was interpreted as strong evidence for the effector independence (Schmidt, 1975, 1988) and modularity of the timing sequence (Keele, Davidson, & Hayes, 1998).
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