SummaryIn this chapter we present a synthesis of recommendations for conducting field experiments with honey bees in the context of agricultural pollination. We begin with an overview of methods for determining the mating system requirements of plants and the efficacy of specific pollinators. We describe methods for evaluating the pollen-vectoring capacity of bees at the level of individuals or colonies and follow with methods for determining optimum colony field stocking densities. We include sections for determining post-harvest effects of pollination, the effects of colony management (including glasshouse enclosure) on bee pollination performance, and a brief section on considerations about pesticides and their impact on pollinator performance. A final section gives guidance on determining the economic valuation of honey bee colony inputs at the scale of the farm or region. Métodos estándar para el estudio de polinización con Apis mellifera ResumenEn este capítulo se presenta una síntesis de las recomendaciones para la realización de experimentos de campo con abejas melíferas en el contexto de la polinización agrícola. Comienza con una revisión de los métodos para la determinación de los requisitos del sistema de reproducción de las plantas y de la eficacia de los polinizadores específicos. Se describen métodos para evaluar la capacidad de las abejas como vectores de polen a los niveles de individuos o de colonias, y se continúa con los métodos para la determinación de las densidades óptimas de colonias en campo. Se incluyen secciones para la determinación de los efectos de la polinización en la cosecha, los efectos del manejo de las colonias (incluyendo el cercado en invernaderos) en el rendimiento de polinización de las abejas, y una breve sección sobre consideraciones acerca de los plaguicidas y su impacto en el rendimiento de los polinizadores. Una última sección ofrece una guía para la determinación del valor económico de los gastos de las colonias de abejas melíferas a escala de explotación o de región.
The aim of this study was to determine the factors required to pollinate 'Hort16A' (Actinidia chinensis Planch. var. chinensis) kiwifruit. Pistillate flowers (88%) opened between 0500 and 1200 h. There was no indication of nectar production or viable pollen on pistillate flowers. Stigma receptivity peaked on the second day after anthesis and then declined. Excluding honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) significantly (p B0.05) reduced fruit set and seed number. Flowers exposed to wind pollination for 5 days produced fruit with an average of 110 seeds. When equal numbers of staminate and pistillate flowers were presented on a tray, only 2.8% of visits were to staminate 'Sparkler' flowers and 2.2% to staminate 'Meteor' flowers. Single bee visits to pistillate flowers produced averages of 51Á61.7 seeds. The percentage of staminate pollen carried by honey bees significantly decreased with increasing distance from staminate vines (0.8%/m). Average seed number decreased by 0.75%/m.
Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) were shown to be able to discriminate between staminate (male) and pistillate (female) kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) flowers. They exhibited floral sex constancy and showed an overall preference for pistillate flowers when visiting flowers on a tray. This indicates that honey bee pollination of kiwifruit is not a case of "mistake pollination". Foragers also exhibited flower sex constancy between trips when foraging freely in a kiwifruit orchard. A number of foragers also had foraging areas that they returned to during consecutive foraging trips. Honey bees visited staminate flowers between 1 and 3 days old, and pistillate flowers between 1 and 5 days old in a season when pistillate anther dehiscence took 5 days. When pistillate anther dehiscence took only 3 days, foragers only visited flowers between 1 and 3 days old. This suggests that foragers are able to determine whether a kiwifruit flower contains pollen without having to land on it.
The widespread use of protective covers in horticulture represents a novel landscape‐level change, presenting the challenges for crop pollination. Honeybees (Apis mellifera L) are pollinators of many crops, but their behavior can be affected by conditions under covers. To determine how netting crop covers can affect honeybee foraging dynamics, colony health, and pollination services, we assessed the performance of 52 nucleus honeybee colonies in five covered and six uncovered kiwifruit orchards. Colony strength was estimated pre‐ and postintroduction, and the foraging of individual bees (including pollen, nectar, and naïve foragers) was monitored in a subset of the hives fitted with RFID readers. Simultaneously, we evaluated pollination effectiveness by measuring flower visitation rates and the number of seeds produced after single honeybee visits. Honeybee colonies under cover exhibited both an acute loss of foragers and changes in the behavior of successful foragers. Under cover, bees were roughly three times less likely to return after their first trip outside the hive. Consequently, the number of adult bees in hives declined at a faster rate in these orchards, with colonies losing on average 1,057 ± 274 of their bees in under two weeks. Bees that did forage under cover completed fewer trips provisioning their colony, failing to reenter after a few short‐duration trips. These effects are likely to have implications for colony health and productivity. We also found that bee density (bees/thousand flowers) and visitation rates to flowers were lower under cover; however, we did not detect a resultant change in pollination. Our findings highlight the need for environment‐specific management techniques for pollinators. Improving honeybee orientation under covers and increasing our understanding of the effects of covers on bee nutrition and brood rearing should be primary objectives for maintaining colonies and potentially improving pollination in these systems.
White clover (Trifolium repens L.) is grown throughout New Zealand in pasture and as a seed crop in the South Island. This investigation was conducted to determine the number of honey bee visits necessary to fully pollinate white clover flowers; the number of foraging honey bees per hectare required to reach the maximum seed number per floret; and to assess the level of white clover pollination in Canterbury. The theoretical maximum number of seeds that can be produced per white clover floret is six, based on the number of ovules present. Based on the number of seeds resulting from a single bee visit (mean 01.24), it is calculated that in an 8 h foraging day, 19,420 bees would be required per hectare to reach maximum seed number per floret, assuming that no floret received more visits than required. Bee activity was assessed at two clover sites with an estimated 20,124 foraging bees per hectare. This number should have been enough to reach maximum seed number per floret. However, seed set in these fields was approximately half of its theoretical potential.
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