Despite the apparent simplicity, it is notoriously difficult to measure rainfall accurately because of the challenging environment within which it is measured. Systematic bias caused by wind is inherent in rainfall measurement and introduces an inconvenient unknown into hydrological science that is generally ignored. This paper examines the role of rain gauge shape and mounting height on catch efficiency (CE), where CE is defined as the ratio between nonreference and reference rainfall measurements. Using a pit gauge as a reference, we have demonstrated that rainfall measurements from an exposed upland site, recorded by an adjacent conventional cylinder rain gauge mounted at 0.5 m, were underestimated by more than 23% on average. At an exposed lowland site, with lower wind speeds on average, the equivalent mean undercatch was 9.4% for an equivalent gauge pairing. An improved‐aerodynamic gauge shape enhanced CE when compared to a conventional cylinder gauge shape. For an improved‐aerodynamic gauge mounted at 0.5 m above the ground, the mean undercatch was 11.2% at the upland site and 3.4% at the lowland site. The mounting height of a rain gauge above the ground also affected CE due to the vertical wind gradient near to the ground. Identical rain gauges mounted at 0.5 and 1.5 m were compared at an upland site, resulting in a mean undercatch of 11.2% and 17.5%, respectively. By selecting three large rainfall events and splitting them into shorter‐duration intervals, a relationship explaining 81% of the variance was established between CE and wind speed.

Natural Flood Management (NFM) is receiving much attention in the United Kingdom and across Europe and is now widely seen as a valid solution to help sustainably manage flood risk whilst offering significant multiple benefits. However, there is little empirical evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of NFM interven-

Grasslands deliver a range of ecosystem services, including the provision of food and biodiversity, and regulation of soil carbon storage and hydrology. Monitoring schemes are needed to quantify spatial changes in these multiple functions alongside ecosystem degradation. Sward height is widely recognised as a key spatial variable in the provision of these services. Current manual monitoring approaches are labour intensive, and often fail to capture spatial patterns of important features, including sward height. Proximal sensing from small aerial drones carrying lightweight cameras can be transformed into surface height models using image‐based structure‐from‐motion and Multi‐View Stereo‐based approaches; this presents a new opportunity for monitoring the spatial structure of grassland sward height. We combined aerial photographs with field survey data and an open‐source image‐based modelling‐processing workflow to generate sward height measurements for a field comprising mainly Lolium perenne (perennial ryegrass) and Trifolium pratense (red clover). We compared the derived measurements with in situ data captured on the same day using traditional agronomic sward height techniques to determine the quality of the drone‐derived surface model product for sward characterisation. The SfM and Multi‐View Stereo‐based surface model had a mean absolute sward height measurement error of between 3.7 and 4.2 cm. To produce field observations with equivalent quality would require up to 550 sward height measurements for the study site (area: 8,059 m2), which is not feasible over larger extents required for conservation of key species or agronomic purposes. Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate how the collection of precise and detailed information on the spatial structure of grasslands can be made over management‐relevant extents. Aerial digital photographs can be transformed into surface models using an image‐based modelling approach: structure‐from‐motion and Multi‐View Stereo techniques. Image‐based measurements of sward heights were compared with manual sward height data captured on the same day. This novel source of vegetation spatial information could improve sward management for conservation and agronomy applications. The approach supports frequent surveys, at user‐controlled revisit times, and delivers data for spatial monitoring of key grassland functions and services.

The influence of naturally occurring in‐channel large wood (LW) on the hydraulics, hydrology and geomorphology of rivers is well documented. To inform management and better understand naturally occurring or artificially placed LW, hydraulic and hydrological models are applied to predict the possible benefits and drawbacks for habitat, sediment management and flood risk mitigation. However, knowledge and guidance on appropriate representation in models, needed to underpin realistic predictions, is lacking. This could lead to unrealistic expectations of the effectiveness of LW for different river management goals. To date, seven types of LW representation in hydraulic and hydrological models have been applied, the range partly reflecting the variety of LW, model types, scales and purposes. The most common approach is by altering channel roughness to represent flow resistance. Although qualitatively the effects of LW have been captured using models, to date quantitative validation, as well as transferable knowledge to help a priori parameterization of LW representations, remain limited. Therefore, additional empirical investigations and robust model validation are required to inform defensible LW representations for specific purposes and scales in numerical models coupled with better accounting of input uncertainty to improve confidence in predictions. Future studies should also consider a greater range of artificial and natural LW features, settings, larger spatial scales and better account for temporal variability of flow, morphology and LW configuration. This article is categorized under: Water and Life > Methods Science of Water > Methods Water and Life > Nature of Freshwater Ecosystems

Image‐based modeling, and more precisely, Structure from Motion (SfM) and Multi‐View Stereo (MVS), is emerging as a flexible, self‐service, remote sensing tool for generating fine‐grained digital surface models (DSMs) in the Earth sciences and ecology. However, drone‐based SfM + MVS applications have developed at a rapid pace over the past decade and there are now many software options available for data processing. Consequently, understanding of reproducibility issues caused by variations in software choice and their influence on data quality is relatively poorly understood. This understanding is crucial for the development of SfM + MVS if it is to fulfill a role as a new quantitative remote sensing tool to inform management frameworks and species conservation schemes. To address this knowledge gap, a lightweight multirotor drone carrying a Ricoh GR II consumer‐grade camera was used to capture replicate, centimeter‐resolution image datasets of a temperate, intensively managed grassland ecosystem. These data allowed the exploration of method reproducibility and the impact of SfM + MVS software choice on derived vegetation canopy height measurement accuracy. The quality of DSM height measurements derived from four different, yet widely used SfM‐MVS software—Photoscan, Pix4D, 3DFlow Zephyr, and MICMAC, was compared with in situ data captured on the same day as image capture. We used both traditional agronomic techniques for measuring sward height, and a high accuracy and precision differential GPS survey to generate independent measurements of the underlying ground surface elevation. Using the same replicate image dataset (n = 3) as input, we demonstrate that there are 1.7, 2.0, and 2.5 cm differences in RMSE (excluding one outlier) between the outputs from different SfM + MVS software using High, Medium, and Low quality settings, respectively. Furthermore, we show that there can be a significant difference, although of small overall magnitude between replicate image datasets (n = 3) processed using the same SfM + MVS software, following the same workflow, with a variance in RMSE of up to 1.3, 1.5, and 2.7 cm (excluding one outlier) for “High,” “Medium,” and “Low” quality settings, respectively. We conclude that SfM + MVS software choice does matter, although the differences between products processed using “High” and “Medium” quality settings are of small overall magnitude.

Climate change, combined with industrial growth and increasing demand, could result in serious future water shortages and related water quality and temperature issues, especially for upland and humid areas. The extreme 2018 drought that prevailed throughout Europe provided an opportunity to investigate conditions likely to become more frequent in the future. For an upland rural catchment utilised by the distilling industry in NorthEast Scotland, a tracer-based survey combined discharge, electrical conductivity, stable water isotopes and temperature measurements to understand the impacts of drought on dominant stream water and industry water sources, both in terms of water quantity and quality (temperature). Results showed that water types (groundwater, ephemeral stream water, perennial stream water and water from small dams) were spatially distinct and varied more in space than time. With regards to the drought conditions we found that streams were largely maintained by groundwater during low flows. This also buffered stream water temperatures. Water types with high young water fractions were less resilient, resulting in streams with an ephemeral nature. Although our results demonstrated the importance of groundwater for drought resilience, water balance data revealed these storage reserves were being depleted and only recovered towards the end of the following year because of above average rainfall in 2019. Increased storage depletion under continued trends of extreme drought and water abstraction could be addressed via informed (nature based) management strategies which focus on increasing recharge. This may improve resilience to droughts as well as floods, but site specific testing and modelling are required to understand their potential. Results could have implications for management of water volumes and temperature, particularly for the sustainability of an historic industry, balancing requirements of rural communities and the environment.

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Temporary storage areas (TSAs) represent a category of soft-engineered naturebased solutions that can provide dispersed, small-scale storage throughout a catchment. TSAs store and attenuate surface runoff, providing new additional storage during flood events. The need for such additional catchment storage will become more urgent as the frequency and magnitude of extreme hydrological events increases due to climate change. Implementation of TSAs in headwater catchments is slowly gaining momentum, but practitioners still require further evidence on how such measures function during flood events. This review focuses on the role of relatively small-scale (<10,000 m 3 ) TSAs in headwater catchments for flood risk management. It also explores the potential wider benefits for implementing these as part of an integrated catchment management approach. TSA flood mitigation effectiveness is primarily determined by the TSA's available storage prior to the event. At the local scale, this can be represented by the relationship between TSA inputs, outputs and total storage. Factors influencing the local functioning and effectiveness of TSAs are discussed, with potential considerations for optimizing future TSA design and management. Hydrological models have suggested that TSAs could be used to effectively attenuate high magnitude events. However, future considerations should involve addressing the lack of empirical evidence showing TSA catchment scale effectiveness and how local TSA functioning might change in time. Small-scale headwater TSAs offer a holistic and sustainable approach to catchment management that can deliver both local benefits to landowners and wider flood risk mitigation for society.