Performic acid, or PFA (CH(2)O(3)), is a well-known oxidizing agent and disinfectant in the medical field and food industry. It has recently become available on a commercial scale for potential use in wastewater disinfection. This study investigated its application to an advanced primary effluent which is recalcitrant to disinfection by UV and peracetic acid (PAA). Methods were developed for determining PFA concentrations in stock solutions as well as in residual concentrations in the wastewater. Batch and continuous-flow pilot studies showed a correlation between log fecal coliform removals and PFA doses. A PFA dose of approximately 3.4 mg/L and a contact time of 45 minutes could achieve 3-logs removal, and almost total disinfection could be achieved using a dose of 6 mg/L. The by-products of PFA addition are hydrogen peroxide and formic acid (CHOOH), neither of which is considered to be toxic to aquatic fauna at the doses required for disinfection.
the NAS report, moved forward to outline a broadly collaborative program (Collins et al., 2008) with other United States federal agencies to implement recommendations from the NAS report. A multi-stakeholder program, SEURAT (Safety Evaluation Ultimately Replacing Animal Testing) 1 that focused on implementation of non-animal methods also began in Europe. Following SEURAT, EU-ToxRisk, a large-scale project funded by the European Commission's Horizon 2020 program 2 , is now driving the European research efforts on alternative testing methods.These in vitro and computational technologies, together with application of existing tools to new data streams (e.g., readacross), are collectively referred to as new approach methodologies -NAMs (US EPA, 2018b). The US EPA under the new Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) in section 4(h) is required Food for Thought …
AbstractTo address concerns around age-related sensitivity to pyrethroids, a life-stage physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model, supported by in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) was developed. The model was used to predict age-dependent changes in target tissue exposure of 8 pyrethroids; deltamethrin (DLM), cis-permethrin (CPM), trans-permethrin, esfenvalerate, cyphenothrin, cyhalothrin, cyfluthrin, and bifenthrin. A single model structure was used based on previous work in the rat. Intrinsic clearance (CLint) of each individual cytochrome P450 or carboxylesterase (CES) enzyme that are active for a given pyrethroid were measured in vitro, then biologically scaled to obtain in vivo age-specific total hepatic CLint. These IVIVE results indicate that, except for bifenthrin, CES enzymes are largely responsible for human hepatic metabolism (>50% contribution). Given the high efficiency and rapid maturation of CESs, clearance of the pyrethroids is very efficient across ages, leading to a blood flow-limited metabolism. Together with age-specific physiological parameters, in particular liver blood flow, the efficient metabolic clearance of pyrethroids across ages results in comparable to or even lower internal exposure in the target tissue (brain) in children than that in adults in response to the same level of exposure to a given pyrethroid (Cmax ratio in brain between 1- and 25-year old = 0.69, 0.93, and 0.94 for DLM, bifenthrin, and CPM, respectively). Our study demonstrated that a life-stage PBPK modeling approach, coupled with IVIVE, provides a robust framework for evaluating age-related differences in pharmacokinetics and internal target tissue exposure in humans for the pyrethroid class of chemicals.
The effect of route of exposure on the kinetics of key biomarkers of exposure to benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a known human carcinogen, was studied. Rats were exposed to an intravenous, intratracheal, oral and cutaneous dose of 40 µmol kg(-1) BaP. BaP and several metabolites were measured in blood, urine and feces collected at frequent intervals over 72 h post-treatment, using high-performance liquid chromatography/fluorescence. Only BaP and 3-hydroxyBaP (3-OHBaP) were detectable in blood at all time points. There were route-to-route differences in the excreted amounts (% dose) of metabolites but the observed time courses of the excretion rate were quite similar. In urine, total amounts of BaP metabolites excreted over the 0-72 h period followed the order: trans-4,5-dihydrodiolBaP (4,5-diolBaP) ≥ 3-OHBaP > 7-OHBaP ≥ 7,8-diolBaP after intravenous injection and intratracheal instillation; 3-OHBaP ≈ 7-OHBaP ≥ 4,5-diolBaP > 7,8-diolBaP after cutaneous application; 3-OHBaP ≥ 4,5-diolBaP ≈ 7-OHBaP > 7,8-diolBaP following oral administration. In feces, total amounts of BaP metabolites recovered were: 7-OHBaP ≈ 3-OHBaP > 4,5-diolBaP > 7,8-diolBaP > BaP-7,8,9,10-tetrol following all administration routes. For all exposure routes, excretion of 4,5- and 7,8-diolBaP was almost complete over the 0-24 h period in contrast with that of 3- and 7-OHBaP. This study confirms the interest of measuring multiple metabolites due to route-to-route differences in the relative excretion of the different biomarkers and in the time courses of diolBaPs versus OHBaPs. Concentration ratios of the different metabolites may help indicate time and main route of exposure.
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