a b s t r a c tAfrican farming systems are highly heterogeneous: between agroecological and socioeconomic environments, in the wide variability in farmers' resource endowments and in farm management. This means that single solutions (or 'silver bullets') for improving farm productivity do not exist. Yet to date few approaches to understand constraints and explore options for change have tackled the bewildering complexity of African farming systems. In this paper we describe the Nutrient Use in Animal and Cropping systems -Efficiencies and Scales (NUANCES) framework. NUANCES offers a structured approach to unravel and understand the complexity of African farming to identify what we term 'best-fit' technologiestechnologies targeted to specific types of farmers and to specific niches within their farms. The NUANCES framework is not 'just another computer model'! We combine the tools of systems analysis and experimentation, detailed field observations and surveys, incorporate expert knowledge (local knowledge and results of research), generate databases, and apply simulation models to analyse performance of farms, and the impacts of introducing new technologies. We have analysed and described complexity of farming systems, their external drivers and some of the mechanisms that result in (in)efficient use of scarce resources. Studying sites across sub-Saharan Africa has provided insights in the trajectories of change in farming systems in response to population growth, economic conditions and climate variability (cycles of drier and wetter years) and climate change. In regions where human population is dense and land scarce, farm typologies have proven useful to target technologies between farmers of different production objectives and resource endowment (notably in terms of land, labour and capacity for investment). In such regions we could categorise types of fields on the basis of their responsiveness to soil improving technologies along soil fertility gradients, relying on local indicators to differentiate those that may be managed through 'maintenance fertilization' from fields that are highly-responsive to fertilizers and fields that require rehabilitation before yields can improved. Where human population pressure on the land is less intense, farm and field types are harder to discern, without clear patterns. Nutrient cycling through livestock is in principle not efficient for increasing food production due to increased nutrient losses, but is attractive for farmers due to the multiple functions of livestock. We identified trade-offs between income generation, soil conservation and community agreements through optimising concurrent objectives at farm and village levels. These examples show that future analyses must focus at farm and farming system level and not at the level of individual fields to achieve appropriate targeting of technologies -both between locations and between farms at any given location. The approach for integrated assessment described here can be used ex ante to explore the potential of bes...

Development of village chicken production can be a sustainable way of helping to meet the welfare needs of rural populations and raise their living standards. There is a dearth of information on research conducted to characterize, understand and develop the village chicken production systems in Zimbabwe. This review focuses on constraints, opportunities and research needs for the improvement of village chicken productivity in Zimbabwe. Village chicken production in Zimbabwe is extensive and dominated by indigenous chickens that exhibit remarkable adaptation to local environments. The multitude functions of village chickens, which include the provision of high quality protein meat and eggs, cash through sales and socio-cultural roles, are discussed in detail. Human gender aspects in village chicken production are highlighted. The factors that hamper village chicken productivity are reviewed together with opportunities and research needs. The major constraints include shortage of feed, poor health and housing management. Any improvements in these constraints may lead to sustainable increase in village chicken productivity.

Mwale and Masika 2009 Ethno-veterinary control of parasites, management and role of village chickens in rural households of Centane district in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Tropical Animal Health and Production. Village chickens contribute significantly towards rural livelihood in the African continent through the provision of animal protein, income and socio-cultural uses. However, village chickens are susceptible to parasite infestation. Due to limitations of using western drugs to control these parasites, farmers resort to the use of ethno-veterinary medicine (EVM). However, there is dearth of information on EVM use in chickens. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to document various EVM practices used in controlling gastro-intestinal parasites in village chickens. Stratified random sampling was used to select 62 chicken farmers that were interviewed using a structured questionnaire About 70 and 96.7% of farmers provided housing and water for their chickens respectively whereas the rest did not. The chief role of chickens was meat provision (91.7%). Most households (86%) reported parasite problems in chickens, particularly gastro-intestinal parasites. Eighty-three percent of the interviewed respondents use medicinal plants to control both internal and external parasites in chickens. Use of plants increased with parasite incidences (r=0.347; P<0.01). Mainly gastro-intestinal parasites were problematic and were largely controlled by medicinal plants. Further research on pharmacological properties, safety and efficacy of these plants is important for improved chicken productivity and hence rural livelihood.

Ram press sunflower cake protein concentrate was formulated locally and its effect on the performance of dairy cows was compared with that of a commercial dairy concentrate. The effects of concentrate on roughage dry matter intake, milk yield and milk composition, live weight and calving intervals were similar for all concentrates, which indicated that the home grown dairy concentrates were as effective as the dairy commercial concentrate. The lack of significant differences in the concentrations of rumen NH3-N, pH, VFAs and total AA in all the cows between concentrate types supported this. The results indicated that in the low-resource and low-input production systems, crossbreds were as productive as Jersey and Red Dane cows. The exotic cows were more susceptible to tick-borne diseases and mastitis, and showed higher incidences of calving problems and retained placenta compared with crossbred cows. The economics of feeding ram press sunflower concentrate were compared with those of a commercial dairy concentrate on the performance of crossbred, Red Dane and Jersey cows. The gross margin was higher when feeding sunflower cake than when feeding commercial dairy concentrate (p < 0.05).

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The objective of this study was to determine the extent to which households use livestock sales to mitigate the impact of HIV/AIDS income shocks. Using survey data from the Muzarabani and Bindura districts of Mashonaland Central Province in Zimbabwe, the econometric analysis indicated that livestock, particularly poultry and small stock, play a significant role in smoothing income fluctuations due to HIV/AIDS. Cattle sales compensate for 71 per cent of income shortfalls due to HIV/AIDS. About 90 per cent of HIV/AIDS-afflicted households, headed mainly by women or children, used poultry and goats as consumption-smoothing strategies when faced with negative income shocks. Government and other stakeholders were advised to support the use of small stock as a strategy for coping with HIV/AIDS economic shock in female- or child-headed households in rural areas.

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Water scarcity has been a critical concern in many countries of the world. The same concern has been discussed, analyzed and researched at different platforms to find better solutions to the challenges of water scarcity, and in most cases water scarcity directly influence food security in terms of food production. South Africa, being one of the water scarce countries that derives its food from the agricultural sector; water scarcity remains at the centre stage of the national socioeconomic debate. Water scarcity is one of the major challenges in many countries such as Zimbabwe and Ethiopia particularly for the farmers. However, there is insufficient information on the impact of water scarcity challenges on rural communities’ food security initiatives. This review is focused on unearthing water scarcity challenges in rural communities, their impact on agriculture and ultimately food security initiatives. This paves way for possible research areas, practical implications and strategies to mitigate water security effects on food security.