Catalytic nanomaterials, widely used as substitutes of peroxidase, exhibit unique properties, which are unattainable for native enzymes. However, their activity is usually examined by means of substrates developed and methods standardized for horseradish peroxidase (HRP). The aim of the presented work was to determine the scope of usefulness of chromogenic substrates for gold nanoparticle (AuNP) activity studies under conditions which significantly extend beyond the activity range of a native HRP. The applicability of chromogens such as 3,3′5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB), o-phenylenediamine (OPD), 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) beyond the typical range of pH, and for the samples of high concentration of hydrogen peroxide was examined. The conducted research confirmed the usefulness of ABTS and TMB in acidic media (pH 2.5–3.5). At the same time, potential interferences from chloride anion, unobservable for HRP-based assays, were indicated. Moreover, a number of potentially useful hints concerning relations of concentration of substrates and catalyst for aromatic amine oxidation (TMB and OPD) were proposed. By increasing the concentration of chromogens and thanks to assuring the relatively low conversion of the reaction, the stability of TMB and OPD oxidation product was improved even in acidic media. The comparative studies of H2O2 affinity to the surface of AuNPs in the presence of various hydrogen donors underlined the superiority of phenolic compounds over aromatic amines and ABTS in the case of the samples of relatively low H2O2 concentration. This work highlights some improvements in the methods of HRP-like activity characterization of NPs. It provides a critical analysis of the major challenges, which may emerge in a case of bioanalytical assays employing the catalytic nanoparticles as labels.
Aluminum(III) porphyrins are examined as potential fluoride selective ionophores in polymeric membrane type ionselective electrodes. Membranes formulated with Al(III) tetraphenyl (TPP) or octaethyl (OEP) porphyrins are shown to exhibit enhanced potentiometric selectivity for fluoride over more lipophilic anions, including perchlorate and thiocyanate. However, such membrane electrodes display undesirable super-Nernstian behavior, with concomitant slow response and recovery times. By employing a sterically hindered Al(III) picket fence porphyrin (PFP) complex as the membrane active species, fully reversible and Nernstian response toward fluoride is achieved. This finding suggests that the super-Nernstian behavior observed with the nonpicket fence metalloporphyrins is due to the formation of aggregate porphyrin species (likely dimers) within the membrane phase. The steric hindrance of the PFP ligand structure eliminates such chemistry, thus leading to theoretical response slopes toward fluoride. Addition of lipophilic anionic sites into the organic membranes enhances response and selectivity, indicating that the Al(III) porphyrin ionophores function as charged carrier type ionophores. Optimized membranes formulated with Al(III)-PFP in an o-nitrophenyloctyl ether plasticized PVC film exhibit fast response to fluoride down to 40 mM, with very high selectivity over SCN, Br À and NO 3 À (k pot < 10 À3 for all anions tested). With further refinements in the membrane chemistry, it is anticipated that Al(III) porphyrin-based membrane electrodes can exhibit potentiometric fluoride response and selectivity that approaches that of the classical solid-state LaF 3 crystal-based fluoride sensor.
Novel aluminum(III)-and zirconium(IV)-tetraphenylporhyrin (TPP) derivatives are examined as fluoride selective ionophores for preparing polymer membrane-based ion-selective electrodes (ISEs). The influence of t-butyl-or dichloro-phenyl ring substituents as well as the nature of the metal ion center (Al(III) vs. Zr(IV)) on the anion complexation constants of TPP derivative ionophores are reported. The anion binding stability constants of the ionophores are characterized by the so-called "sandwich membrane" method. All of the metalloporphyrins examined form their strongest anion complexes with fluoride. The influence of plasticizer as well as the type of lipophilic ionic site additive and their amounts in the sensing membrane are discussed. It is shown that membrane electrodes formulated with the metalloporphyrin derivatives and appropriate anionic or cationic additives exhibit enhanced potentiometric response toward fluoride over all other anions tested. Since selectivity toward fluoride is enhanced in the presence of both anionic and cationic additives, the metalloporphyrins can function as either charged or neutral carriers within the organic membrane phase. In contrast to previously reported fluoride-selective polymeric membrane electrodes based on metalloporphyrins, nernstian or near-nernstian (−51.2 to −60.1 mV decade −1 ) as well as rapid (t < 80s) and fully reversible potentiometric fluoride responses are observed. Moreover, use of aluminum (III)-t-butyltetraphenylporphyrin as the ionophore provides fluoride sensors with prolonged (7 months) functional life-time.
Several porphyrin and salophen complexes with Rh(III) are examined as ionophores to prepare nitrite selective polymeric membrane electrodes. All ionophores tested exhibit preferred selectivity towards nitrite anion. Enhanced potentiometric nitrite selectivity is observed in the presence of either lipophilic anionic as well as cationic sites within the membranes, suggesting that the ionophores can function via either a charged or neutral carrier response mechanism. Among a range of complexes and membrane formulations examined, optimal nitrite selectivity and reversible response down to 5 × 10 −6 M is achieved using Rh(III)-tetra(t-butyl-phenylporphyrin) as the ionophore in the presence of lipophilic cationic sites in plasticized PVC membrane. Response times are substantially longer than typical membrane electrodes apparently due to slow nitrite ligation reaction however, a significant improvement in dynamic EMF response can be realized by optimizing the membrane formulation and increasing temperature. The selecitivity observed with these membranes is greater than the best nitrite selective electrodes reported to the date in the literature based on lipophilic Co (III)-corrin complexes, allowing the new nitrite electrodes to be utilized to determine the level of nitrite in meats with good correlation to the colorimetric Griess assay method.Ion-selective polymeric membrane electrodes (ISEs) for cations and anions have become widespread analytical tools over the past three decades. 1,2 They are based on a generic sensing principle in which different lipophilic ionophores can be employed within the polymer membranes to yield devices with high selectivity for a wide range of ions. Generally, it has been found that the development of ionophores capable of selective interaction with specific anions is far more challenging than for cations, owing to the highly varied sizes and shapes of anionic species. 1 Among the anion-selective carriers examined to date, lipophilic metal cationligand complexes, such as metalloporphyrins, metallophthalocyanines, and metallosalophens have received considerable attention due to their good chemical and thermal resistance. 3 Moreover, it has been demonstrated repeatedly that the anion selectivity of these complexes depends mainly on the specific nature of the central metal cation and hence fundamental knowledge about the chemical ligation properties of metal ion centers of these complexes (i.e., relative affinity towards different anions) can help predict the anion-selectivity of membranes formulated with such species.There is a growing interest in devising simple sensors to detect nitrite due to the important role of this anion in many fields. 4 Nitrite ion is commonly used as an additive in some foods and as a corrosion inhibitor. 5,6,7 Moreover, it can be formed as a result of the degradation of fertilizers. 8,9,10 Its determination is important for environmental reasons as well as for public health, since highly carcinogenic N-nitrosoamines can be formed by the reaction of nitri...
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