This chapter discusses the meaning of compliance and the factors affecting state decisions to comply with international norms. It questions whether differences should be expected between compliance with legally binding and non-binding norms. An alternative approach to the same issue is also presented.

Building upon token theory, this paper analyses coping behaviours of women in Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) through a professional identity perspective. It proposes that female scientists need to negotiate and balance conflicting aspects of their professional and gender identities throughout their career. A reconstructive biography analysis of Leitmotif and Gestalt of 15 life stories reveals that gender is the structuring element of the female scientists' self-presentation. The paper presents two key cases which exemplify two alternative coping strategies: the women either use a similarity strategy, relying on full assimilation to the masculine norms in SET, or a difference strategy, highlighting their otherness and their struggle for equality. The in-depth analysis reveals that both strategies cannot 'break patterns', but instead leave the dominance of masculine norms in SET unchallenged. Implications of these findings are discussed.

This article focuses on the topic of gender segregation at universities in German-speaking countries. It addresses the question how the interrelation of organizational structures and individual biographies leads to the drop-out of females during their PhD. Moreover, it contributes to the understanding of how these drop-outs are embedded in gendered organizational structures and processes. A case study approach is applied in order to gain a deeper understanding of the crucial mentor–mentee relationship at this career stage. The detailed reconstruction of narrative biographies shows how a young female researcher faces too many restrictions and too much freedom at the same time. Results revealed how the female junior is highly dependent on the male senior and that specific assignments of how and with whom to work impact her career development. At the same time, the evaluation of the junior’s work is based on the stereotypical picture of an autonomous scientist who produces excellent research results without senior interference. Findings are explained in line with the theory of trajectory curves, and demonstrate the long-term and complex process of the unplanned drop-out of a female researcher in a male-dominated environment with gendered structures and processes.

No abstract

The notion of junior scientists’ independence has increasingly become relevant in the evaluation of scientific excellence. In this paper, we deconstruct independence—as an element of excellence—in the context of reviewing a prestigious European Research Grant. Conducting qualitative interviews with this grant’s reviewers, we reveal five different dimensions of how reviewers construct the notion of independence: two dimensions are directly linked to the applicants’ relationship to their supervisors: reviewers were talking about independence as a result of emancipation from the applicants’ (former) supervisor and as a concept that researchers need to negotiate with them. Beyond, three topical dimensions of independence could be identified, referring to originality, networks and mobility. We further show that gender is deeply inscribed into these dimensions, especially when reviewers use their own biographical background for assessing the independence of an early career researcher. These experiences are subject to gender bias through (i) individual stereotypical pictures of masculinity and femininity and (ii) the specific norms of scientific disciplines and structures. These individual gendered constructions of independence might give space to gender bias in the assessment of independence and thus of excellence.