Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are known to be involved in many physiological and pathological processes. Initially ROS-producing NADPH oxidase (NOX) proteins were thought to be present in phagocytes. However, recent studies have demonstrated that NOX proteins are expressed in many other cell types and tissues. NOX family members' expression and function seems to vary from tissue to tissue. We determined the expression of the NOX family of proteins (NOX1-5) in normal breast tissue and breast tumors. Our study revealed that normal breast tissues express NOX1, 4 and 5 genes. Similar pattern of expression was revealed in a breast epithelial cell line. We found that NOX4 was overexpressed in the majority of breast cancer cell lines and primary breast tumors. NOX4 was also overexpressed in ovarian tumors. Overexpression of NOX4 in normal breast epithelial cells resulted in cellular senescence, resistance to apoptosis, and tumorigenic transformation. Overexpression of NOX4 in already transformed breast tumor cells also showed increased tumorigenicity. Strong evidence suggests that regulation of these processes occurs through NOX4 generation of ROS in the mitochondria. We demonstrate that the NOX4 protein contains a 73 amino acid long mitochondrial localization signal at the N-terminus that is capable of transporting a passenger protein GFP into the mitochondria. Treatment of NOX4 overexpressing cells with catalase resulted in decreased tumorigenic characteristics. Together, this study provides evidence for an oncogenic function for NOX4 protein localized to mitochondria and suggests that NOX4 is a novel source of ROS produced in the mitochondria. This study also identifies a possible treatment of NOX4-induced breast cancer by antioxidant treatment.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) function as cellular switches for signaling cascade involved in cell growth, cell death, mitogenesis, angiogenesis and carcinogenesis. ROS are produced as a byproduct of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in the mitochondria. It is estimated that 2-4% of the oxygen consumed during OXPHOS is converted to ROS. Besides mitochondria, NADPH-oxidase 1 (Nox1) also generates a significant amount of ROS in the cell. In this paper, we tested the hypothesis that mitochondria control Nox 1 redox signaling and the loss of control of this signaling contribute to tumorigenesis. We analyzed Nox1 expression in a mitochondrial gene knockout (ρ 0 ) cell line and in the isogenic cybrid cell line in which mitochondrial genes were restored by transfer of wild type mitochondria into ρ 0 cells. Our study revealed, for the first time, that the inactivation of mitochondrial genes leads to down-regulation of Nox1 and that the transfer of wild type mitochondrial genes restored the Nox1 expression to a level comparable to that in the parental cell line. Consistent with Nox1 down-regulation, we found that ρ 0 cells contained low levels of superoxide anion and that superoxide levels reversed to parental levels in cybrid cells when Nox1 expression was restored by transfer of wild type mitochondria. Increasing mitochondrial superoxide levels also increased the expression of Nox1 in parental cells. Confocal microscopy studies revealed that Nox1 localizes in the mitochondria. Nox1 was highly expressed in breast (86%) and ovarian (71%) tumors and that its expression positively correlated with expression of cytochrome C oxidase encoded by mtDNA. Our study, described in this paper demonstrates the existence of cross talk between the mitochondria and NADPH oxidase. Furthermore, our studies suggest that mitochondria control Nox1 redox signaling and the loss of control of this signaling contributes to breast and ovarian tumorigenesis.

Abstract:The better part of a century has passed since Otto Warburg first hypothesized that unique phenotypic characteristics of tumor cells might be associated with an impairment in the respiratory capacity of these cells. Since then a number of distinct differences between the mitochondria of normal cells and cancer cells have been observed at the genetic, molecular, and biochemical levels. This article begins with a general overview of mitochondrial structure and function, and then outlines more specifically the metabolic and molecular alterations in mitochondria associated with human cancer and their clinical implications. Special emphasis is placed on mtDNA mutations and their potential role in carcinogenesis. The potential use of mitochondria as biomarkers for early detection of cancer, or as unique cellular targets for novel and selective anti-cancer agents is also discussed. I. GENERAL BACKGROUNDdepolymerising agents has been shown to result in an altered distribution of mitochondria [2,3]. This suggests that mitochondria are associated with and travel along a molecular 'highway' composed of a cytoplasmic microtubule network. I.A: Mitochondrial Structure and FunctionIn electron micrographs of fixed tissue specimens, mitochondria are most commonly observed as oval particles, 1-2 µm in length and 0.5-1 µm in width. These dimensions approximate to those of the bacterium Escherichia coli. The organelle is bound by two membranes. The peripheral, or outer, membrane encloses the entire contents of the mitochondrion. The inner membrane has a much greater surface area and forms a series of folds or invaginations, called cristae, which project inward towards the interior space of the organelle. The total surface area of the inner membrane varies considerably depending upon the tissue and type of cell. Since the enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation are located on the inner mitochondrial membrane, its surface area and number of cristae are generally correlated with the degree of metabolic activity exhibited by a cell. The spatial arrangement of the outer and inner membranes creates two distinct internal compartments: the intermembrane space is located between the outer and inner membranes; and the matrix is the space enclosed by the inner mitochondrial membrane. By contrast to the static, 'cigar-shaped' organelles commonly observed in electron micrographs, living cells stained with the lipophilic cation rhodamine 123 (Rh123) and observed by fluorescence microscopy reveal mitochondria as a dynamic network of long filamentous structures, capable of profound changes in size, form and location [1]. These mitochondria can be seen extending, contracting, fragmenting and even fusing with one another as they move in three dimensions throughout the cytoplasm. Interestingly, the treatment of cells with microtubuleMitochondria play a central role in oxidative metabolism in eukaryotes (reviewed in [4]. In the catabolism of carbohydrates (Fig. (1a)), this begins with the transport of pyruvate from the cytosol into the m...

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Epigenetic modification in the nuclear genome plays a key role in human tumorigenesis. In this paper, we investigated whether changes in the mtDNA copy number frequently reported to vary in a number of human tumors induce methylation changes in the nucleus. We utilized the Restriction Landmark Genomic Scanning (RLGS) to identify genes that undergo changes in their methylation status in response to the depletion and repletion of mtDNA. Our study demonstrates that depletion of mtDNA results in significant changes in methylation pattern of a number of genes. Furthermore, our study suggests that methylation changes are reversed by the restoration of mtDNA in cells otherwise lacking the entire mitochondrial genome. These studies provide the first direct evidence that mitochondria regulate epigenetic modification in the nucleus that may contribute to tumorigenesis.

Mitochondrial DNA mutations are the direct cause of several physiological disorders and are also associated with the aging process. The modest progress made over the past two decades towards manipulating the mitochondrial genome and understanding its function within living mammalian cells means that cures for mitochondrial DNA mutations are still elusive. Here, we report that transformed mammalian cells internalize exogenous isolated mitochondria upon simple co-incubation. We first demonstrate the physical presence of internalized mitochondria within recipient cells using fluorescence microscopy. Second, we show that xenogenic transfer of murine mitochondria into human cells lacking functional mitochondria can functionally restore respiration in cells lacking mtDNA. Third, utilizing the natural competence of isolated mitochondria to take up linear DNA molecules, we demonstrate the feasibility of using cellular internalization of isolated exogenous mitochondria as a potential tool for studying mitochondrial genetics in living mammalian cells.

We measured the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (mtOXPHOS) activities of all five complexes and determined the activity and gene expression in detail of the Complex III subunits in human breast cancer cell lines and primary tumors. Our analysis revealed dramatic differences in activity of complex III between normal and aggressive metastatic breast cancer cell lines. Determination of Complex III subunit gene expression identified over expression and co-regulation of UQCRFS1 (encoding RISP protein) and UQCRH (encoding Hinge protein) in 6 out of 9 human breast tumors. Analyses of UQCRFS1/RISP expression in additional matched normal and breast tumors demonstrated an over expression in 14 out of 40 (35%) breast tumors. UQCRFS1/RISP knockdown in breast tumor cell line led to decreased mitochondrial membrane potential as well as a decrease in matrigel invasion. Furthermore, reduced matrigel invasion was mediated by reduced ROS levels coinciding with decreased expression of NADPH oxidase 2, 3, 4 and 5 involved in ROS production. These studies provide direct evidence for contribution of impaired mtOXPHOS Complex III to breast tumorigenesis.

Human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encodes 13 proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). In order to investigate the role of mitochondrial OXPHOS genes in breast tumorigenesis, we have developed a breast epithelial cell line devoid of mtDNA (ρ 0 cells). Our analysis revealed that depletion of mtDNA in breast epithelial cells results in in vitro tumorigenic phenotype as well as breast tumorigenesis in a xenograft model. We identified two major gene networks which were differentially regulated between parental and ρ 0 epithelial cells. The focal proteins in these networks include (i) FN1 (fibronectin) and (ii) p53. Bioinformatic analyses of FN1 network identified laminin, integrin and 3 of 6 members of peroxiredoxin whose expression were altered in ρ 0 epithelial cells. In the p53 network, we identified SMC4 and WRN whose changes in expression suggest that this network may affect chromosomal stability. Consistent with above finding our study revealed an increase in DNA double strand breaks and unique chromosomal rearrangements in ρ 0 breast epithelial cells. Additionally, we identified tight junction proteins claudin-1 and claudin-7 in p53 network. To determine the functional relevance of altered gene expression, we focused on detailed analyses of claudin-1 and -7 proteins in breast tumorigenesis. Our study determined that (i) claudin-1 and 7 were indeed downregulated in ρ 0 breast epithelial cells, (ii) downregulation of claudin-1 or -7 led to neoplastic transformation of breast epithelial cells, and (iii) claudin-1 and -7 were also downregulated in primary breast tumors. Together, our study suggest that mtDNA encoded OXPHOS genes play a key role in transformation of breast epithelial cells and that multiple pathway involved in mitochondria-to-nucleus retrograde regulation contribute to transformation of breast epithelial cells.