Honey bee colony losses are triggered by interacting stress factors consistently associated with high loads of parasites and/or pathogens. A wealth of biotic and abiotic stressors are involved in the induction of this complex multifactorial syndrome, with the parasitic mite Varroa destructor and the associated deformed wing virus (DWV) apparently playing key roles. The mechanistic basis underpinning this association and the evolutionary implications remain largely obscure. Here we narrow this research gap by demonstrating that DWV, vectored by the Varroa mite, adversely affects humoral and cellular immune responses by interfering with NF-κB signaling. This immunosuppressive effect of the viral pathogen enhances reproduction of the parasitic mite. Our experimental data uncover an unrecognized mutualistic symbiosis between Varroa and DWV, which perpetuates a loop of reciprocal stimulation with escalating negative effects on honey bee immunity and health. These results largely account for the remarkable importance of this mite-virus interaction in the induction of honey bee colony losses. The discovery of this mutualistic association and the elucidation of the underlying regulatory mechanisms sets the stage for a more insightful analysis of how synergistic stress factors contribute to colony collapse, and for the development of new strategies to alleviate this problem.Apis mellifera | Varroa destructor | deformed wing virus | mutualistic symbiosis | honeybee colony losses

Alien insects usually adapt their phenology and their needs to the environment into which they are introduced. During 2010, the red gum lerp psyllid, Glycaspis brimblecombei, was accidentally introduced into Italy, becoming an invasive pest of Eucalyptus L'Hér. Eucalypts are very common in Italy as ornamental and forest species. The seasonal adaptation of the psyllid was studied at three field sites. G. brimblecombei showed a seasonal population dynamic, suggesting that many generations occur during the year and the species overwinters in all stages without diapause. The population size in the new area of colonization is affected by low winter temperatures, but also by high temperatures in the absence of rainfall. In Lazio, the specific parasitoid Psyllaephagus bliteus was collected for the first time.

Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera: Aphalaridae) is an invasive psyllid introduced into the Mediterranean area, where it affects several species of Eucalyptus. Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) is a specialized parasitoid of this psyllid that was accidentally introduced into Italy in 2011. We developed a model of this host-parasitoid system that accounts for the influence of environmental conditions on the G. brimblecombei population dynamics and P. bliteus parasitism rates in the natural ecosystem. The Lotka-Volterra-based model predicts non-constant host growth and parasitoid mortality rates in association with variation in environmental conditions. The model was tested by analyzing sampling data collected in Naples in 2011 (before the parasitoid was present) and defining several environmental patterns, termed Temperature-Rain or T-R patterns, which correspond to the host growth rate. A mean value of the host growth rate was assigned to each T-R pattern, as well as a variation of the parasitoid mortality rate based on temperature thresholds. The proposed model was applied in simulation tests related to T-R patterns carried out with a data series sampled between June 2014 and July 2015 in five Italian sites located in Campania, Lazio, Sicily, and Sardinia regions. The simulation results showed that the proposed model provides an accurate approximation of population trends, although oscillation details may not be apparent. Results predict a 64% reduction in G. brimblecombei population density owing to P. bliteus parasitoid activity. Our results are discussed with respect to features of the host-parasitoid interaction that could be exploited in future biological control programs.

A taxonomy of typical interaction techniques is proposed in [1], where seven categories of information visualizations provided by commercial systems are considered. This framework gives an initial foundation toward a deeper understanding of interaction in Information Visualization, helping discussion and evaluation of interaction techniques. In this chapter we propose a methodology for the specification and design of complex interactive visualizations as an extension of the graphic language CoDe [2]. Based on the seven categories introduced in [1], we add new interaction operators to CoDe, to enable a visualization designer to specify multiple perspectives of a data set, without losing the underlying mental map of the considered information. The new version of CoDe allows to manage some interaction techniques which are difficult to classify and do not quite fit into any of the categories above. Some applications of the proposed methodology to design interactive visualizations of entomological data are provided as a case study

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