A common procedure for assessing children's behavior is to obtain parental ratings of the child. Since the ratings obtained are a function of both parent and child, disentangling the child's phenotype from that of the rater becomes an important methodological problem. For the analysis of genetic and environmental contributions to children's behavior, solutions to this are available when multiple raters, e.g., two parents, rate multiple children, e.g., twins. This paper describes and illustrates simple LISREL models for the analysis of parental ratings of children's behavior. We show how the assumption that mothers and fathers are rating the same behavior in children can be contrasted with the weaker alternative that parents are rating correlated behaviors. Given the stronger assumption, which appears adequate for ratings of children's internalizing behavior problems, the contribution of rater bias and unreliability may be separated from the shared and nonshared environmental components of variation in a behavior genetic analysis.

We introduce an overlapping cohort sequential longitudinal study of behavioral development and psychopathology in a representative sample of 1412 pairs of twins aged 8 through 16 years. Multiple phenotypic assessments involve a full psychiatric interview with each child and each parent, and supplementary parental, teacher, and child interview material and questionnaires. For the first wave of assessments, the numbers of reported DSM-III-R symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD), Overanxious Disorder (OAD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), Conduct Disorder (CD), and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), assessed through interviews, confirm patterns of age and sex trends found in other epidemiological samples, but underscore their dependence on whether the child or the parent is the informant. Correlations across domains for symptoms reported by the same informant are often as large as correlations across informants for the same domain of symptoms. Factor analyses of these symptom counts, taking account of informant view and unreliability of assessment, show the high degree of correlation between SAD and OAD, between MDD and OAD, and between CD and ODD. ADHD symptoms are relatively independent of the other domains, but show moderate correlations with CD, ODD, and MDD. Factorially derived dimensional questionnaire scales, based on child, parental, and teacher reports, show patterns of relationship to symptom counts consistent with both convergent and discriminant validity as indices of liability to clinical symptoms. Across informants, questionnaire scales provide as good a prediction of symptoms as do clinical interviews. Multitrait-multimethod confirmatory factor analysis reveals the patterns of relationship between symptoms of psychiatric disorder in children taking due account of informant and unique sources of variance. Gender differences are consistent within the correlated clusters of ODD/CD and MDD/SAD/OAD, although there are disorder-specific age trends. There are large informant-specific influences on the reporting of symptoms in clinical interviews. Dimensional questionnaire scales provide a useful source of additional information. In subsequent analyses of genetic and environmental etiology of childhood psychopathology we must expect that results may differ by informant and method of assessment. Multivariate and developmental analyses that explore the sources of these differences will shed new light on the relationship between genetic and environmentally influenced vulnerability and the manifestation of psychopathology in specific circumstances.

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The application of structural equation modeling to twin data is used to assess the impact of genetic and environmental factors on children's behavioral and emotional functioning. The models are applied to the maternal ratings of behavior of a subsample of 515 monozygotic and 749 dizygotic juvenile twin pairs, ages 8 through 16, obtained through mailed questionnaires as part of the Medical College of Virginia Adolescent Behavioral Development Twin Project. The importance of genetic, shared, and specific environmental factors for explaining variation is reported for both externalizing and internalizing behaviors, as well as significant differences in the causes of variation in externalizing behaviors among young boys and girls. The usefulness of applying structural equation models to data on monozygotic and dizygotic twins and the potential implications for addressing clinically relevant questions regarding the causes of psychopathology are discussed.

Interventions for adolescents with SCD should be family-centered and should focus on strengthening the family's ability to manage stressors associated with parenting an adolescent with a chronic illness.

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Teachers' verbal and nonverbal behaviors were examined in the natural classroom setting to assess differences based on sex of child, race of child, and race of teacher. The subjects were 16 (8 black and 8 white) female first grade teachers in an urban public elementary school system. All teachers' classrooms contained students of both races with at least a 1 to 3 ratio of one race to the other. Trained observers recorded verbal and nonverbal behavior for each instance of teacher behavior directed toward individual children in each classroom. The results indicated that white teachers directed more verbal praise and criticism and nonverbal praise toward males and more nonverbal criticism toward black males.The classroom is a natural setting for observing how teachers interact with students. Teachers are in an influential position with respect to students and can communicate significant messages concerning expectations, evaluations, and performance. Their verbal and nonverbal behaviors are part of the interaction pattern that can affect students and their behaviors.Research has begun to examine the relationship between teacher and student behavior. A number of studies have found that teachers' verbal praise improves student behavior (Hughes, 1973; O'Leary & O'Leary, 1972; Rosenshine, 1976). Stallings and Kashowitz (1975) found criticism to be positively correlated with performance, whereas others have found negative correlations between teacher criticism and student performance (Brophy & Evertson, 1974; Rosenshine, 1976). The nonverbal behavior of teachers, such as facial expressions, voice tone, and gestures, also can convey approval and disapproval, which strengthen or weaken responses, but these nonverbal influences often are overlooked (Keith, Tornatzky, & Pettigrew, 1974). The at UCSF LIBRARY & CKM on December 14, 2014 http://aerj.aera.net Downloaded from SIMPSON AND ERICKSON influence of these behaviors has only recently been examined. Woolfolk and Woolfolk (1974) demonstrated that children correctly perceived both the verbal and nonverbal communications of their teachers. A more recent study by Woolfolk (1978) indicated that teachers' positive verbal behavior withnegative nonverbal behavior may be the most effective combination for influencing student performance. However, there are limits to the generalizability of the research results due to the analogue nature of the study and the limited sample of white, middle-class students.Demographic data also need to be examined with respect to teacherstudent interaction patterns because a number of studies have shown that variables such as sex of the child, race of the child, race of the teacher, and socioeconomic status of the child have been correlated with differences in teachers' verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Studies examining the sex variable have indicated some differences in the verbal behavior of teachers with males and females. Good, Sikes, and Brophy (1973) and Meyer and Thompson (1956) found that boys received more approving and disapproving comment...