Aim Understanding colonization dynamics is crucial for management of invasive species. We compare the genetic structure of historical (Central Europe) and recent (Spain) invasive populations with native and captive populations of the North American raccoon (Procyon lotor). Our aim was to analyse the effects of colonization age on genetic population structure, understand the role of captive individuals as potential founders and test the role of rivers for the dispersal of the species.Location North America, Spain, Central Europe.Methods We genotyped wild-caught raccoons from Spain and Central Europe (N = 596), zoos (N = 57) and the native range (N = 153) at 16 microsatellite loci and sequenced a mitochondrial DNA fragment (Control Region). We analysed population genetic structuring with Bayesian assignment methods and a FCA. In a landscape genetic analysis, we tested the effect of waterways in the dispersal of the species. ResultsWe detected 16 genetic clusters (in BAPS), supporting the hypothesis of multiple introductions and ongoing releases in the invasive range. The native population showed nearly no genetic structure, the Central European clusters showed signals of admixture, whereas the Spanish clusters were clearly separated. Admixture of the Central European clusters was probably caused by recent contact of populations with different origin. The landscape genetic analysis showed that rivers represent neither barriers nor corridors in Central Europe.Main conclusions As the Spanish populations are genetically more diverse than the Central European, we expect increased within-population diversity when the still isolated populations merge after range expansion. As our results provide evidence for gene flow between zoos and free-ranging populations, better control of pet trade is essential in the management efforts concerning this invasive species. Our study shows that genetic analyses can help to reconstruct invasion processes, which is important for better understanding and effective management of invasive species.

34As the second largest cause of biodiversity loss worldwide, there is an urgent need to study the dynamics of 35 biological invasions and identify factors limiting the distribution of invasive alien species. In the present study 36 we analyze national-scale hunting bag data from Germany to predict the dispersal of raccoons in the largest non-37 native population of the species. Our focus is (1) to document changes in the distribution and abundance of 38 raccoons, (2) to identify the species-environment relationship and predict which areas will be suitable for future 39 colonization and (3) to apply a dispersal model to predict how fast the raccoon will spread to these areas. The 49 Introduction 50Worldwide, Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are associated with significant damage to the economy and public 51 health, and are considered to be one of the major threats to native biodiversity (Mack et al. 2000; Pimentel et al. 54monitoring programs help to determine the distribution of non-native species, which is necessary in order to 55 assess the impact of non-native species in terms of disease risks, economic damage and negative effects on 56 native species and the environment, and plan management actions to reduce these impacts (Engeman et al. 2006; 57 Sterner and Smith 2006; Yokomizo et al. 2009). Monitoring programs for terrestrial mammals are usually based 58 on the collation of ad-hoc records (Roy et al. 2014a), systematic surveys of abundance (such as road-kill surveys, 59tracking plots, spotlighting, pellet counts along fixed routes), or more cost intensive and logistically complicated 60 methods such as radio-tracking, mark-recapture, camera trapping, aerial surveys and DNA genotyping 61 (Woodroffe et al. 1990; Bartel et al. 2012; Engeman et al. 2013). Hunting bag data are routinely collected for 62 3 game species, and these offer an additional monitoring strategy as they can be used as a general index of long 63 term trends, population and distribution change and a proxy of abundance across time (Cattadori et al. 2003; 64 Kitson 2004; Carlsson et al. 2010). 65These abundance or presence/absence data are used in species distribution models (SDMs) to identify 66 suitable or unsuitable areas for a species based on a set of environmental covariates, and these SDMs can be used 67 to predict where a non-native species will spread to. Generally SDMs assume that the species being modelled is 68 at equilibrium with the environment (Guisan and Thuiller 2005), which means unoccupied areas are considered 69 as unsuitable for the species. However non-native species are often spreading from a few release sites and are 70therefore not at equilibrium with their environment, so absences may be due to dispersal limitation as well as 71 unsuitable environmental conditions (Václavík and Meentemeyer 2012). One approach to address this is to 72 model the dispersal process, and then weight the species distribution model by the predicted probability of 73 different areas being dispersed to (Sullivan et al. 2012 ...

Conservation legislation provides a legal basis for conservation action and is crucial for effective conservation management. In April 2014, the European Parliament agreed upon a proposal for an EU‐wide regulation to combat invasive alien species (IAS). The proposal incorporates many Guiding Principles of the Convention on Biodiversity for dealing with IAS. In addition, to prevention, eradication, management, and control it involves scientists, stakeholders and the public in decision making processes. It goes further by applying the “polluter‐pays” principle: costs of damage induced by IAS and costs for restoration are shifted to the natural person, that is, a human being, or legal person, for example a company, state, etc., responsible for a species introduction. Because of its deterrent and preventive effect, the “polluter‐pays” principle is a valued instrument in environmental policy. It now depends upon the Council of the European Union to agree on the ambitious proposal and adopt this modern conservation legislation. However, we recommend further improvements to achieve effective conservation management. Member States need to coordinate actions and adapt measures to newest scientific findings, best accomplished by a European center of IAS. Securing sufficient funding for such a center would greatly increase the likelihood of the regulation to facilitate efficient conservation initiatives. Before this publication went to press the Council of the European Union adopted this regulation (22. October 2014) in the version of the second proposal as referred to in this text.

Global human population growth is associated with many problems, such as food and water provision, political conflicts, spread of diseases, and environmental destruction. The mitigation of these problems is mirrored in several global conventions and programs, some of which, however, are conflicting. Here, we discuss the conflicts between biodiversity conservation and disease eradication. Numerous health programs aim at eradicating pathogens, and many focus on the eradication of vectors, such as mosquitos or other parasites. As a case study, we focus on the "Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign," which aims at eradicating a pathogen (Trypanosoma) as well as its vector, the entire group of tsetse flies (Glossinidae). As the distribution of tsetse flies largely overlaps with the African hotspots of freshwater biodiversity, we argue for a strong consideration of environmental issues when applying vector control measures, especially the aerial applications of insecticides. Furthermore, we want to stimulate discussions on the value of species and whether full eradication of a pathogen or vector is justified at all. Finally, we call for a stronger harmonization of international conventions. Proper environmental impact assessments need to be conducted before control or eradication programs are carried out to minimize negative effects on biodiversity.