Tablets are increasingly being used in schools for a variety of handwriting tasks. Given that the control of handwriting relies on both visual and proprioceptive feedback, especially in younger writers, this raises the question of whether the texture of the tablet surface affects graphomotor execution. A series of recent studies found that when the smoothness of a tablet screen modifies proprioceptive feedback, the impact on graphomotor execution varies according to the level of the writer's handwriting skills. However, as the writing on the screen remained visible in these studies, participants may have compensated for the decrease in proprioceptive feedback by relying more heavily on visual information. The aim of the present study was therefore to unravel the respective contributions of different types of sensory feedback during handwriting development and, consequently, the compensatory role of visual information when children and adults have to write on a tablet. To this end, we asked second and fifth graders and adult participants to write letters and pseudowords on a plastic board placed on top of a tablet screen. Participants wrote on either the smooth or the granular side of the plastic board (manipulation of surface friction), and with normal vision or behind a shield that hid the hand and handwriting from direct view (manipulation of vision). Kinematic parameters and legibility were recorded to assess handwriting performances. Results revealed a significant interaction between proprioceptive and visual feedback on letter size, pen speed and legibility, regardless of participants' age. Furthermore, reducing the visual and proprioceptive feedback had a greater effect on the children's handwriting performances than on those of adults. Overall, the present study provides new insight into the contribution of the different types of sensory feedback and their interaction with handwriting development. In addition, our results on the impact of tablet surface on graphomotor execution will serve as useful pointers for improving the design of this tool for children, such as increasing the degree of friction of the screen surface.
In the research area of writing development, an increasing number of researchers suggest that graphomotor skills could be much more important than they appear to be (Christensen, 2009). Few researchers have studied the link between handwriting and teaching practices, despite the fact that some studies indicate its importance (Graham, 2010). The general objective of this study is to explore the relationship between different handwriting styles and the development of writing skills among 715 children in Grade 2. Generally, our results show that the three handwriting styles (manuscript/cursive, manuscript, and cursive) have different effects on writing development (speed, quality, word production, and text production). Handwriting and Text ProductionBased on Hayes and Flower's model (1980), written production supposes three cognitive processes: planning (generating ideas and setting goals), translating (transcribing ideas into written text), and revising (rereading the text to improve clarity of idea expression). Further, Berninger and Swanson (1994) adapt this model to text production among younger writers. They describe two processes for translation: text generation, which occurs at different levels of language, and transcription, which includes handwriting (letter production) and spelling (word production).The emergence of cognitive psychology studies in the area of writing learning has brought to light the fact that the development of handwriting skills brings into play several related abilities and that handwriting skills take a long time to acquire (Alamargot & Fayol, 2009). Indeed, an increasing number of studies are shedding light on the relationships between handwriting, spelling, and text production. Given the fact that text production requires the coordination of a large number of cognitive and metacognitive abilities, it could be argued that the graphomotor skills mobilized by children during handwriting have relatively little importance in the writing process as a whole. However, several studies have provided good reason to believe that this low-level aspect could be much more important than it might appear; to generate creative and well-structured
Résumé Cette étude s’inscrit dans le domaine de recherche qui s’intéresse au développement de la litéracie chez les jeunes enfants, en tentant de valider l’impact d’un programme d’orthographes approchées en maternelle sur le développement des habiletés litéraciques de 90 enfants à risque. Globalement, les résultats de notre étude indiquent que les élèves à risque ayant participé à ce programme témoignent de performances significativement plus élevées à une tâche d’écriture de mots en fin de maternelle et à la fin de la première année, en comparaison de celles obtenues par les sujets du groupe contrôle. Cette recherche vient ainsi soutenir l’importance de prévenir les difficultés d’apprentissage dès la maternelle en favorisant l’activité des jeunes scripteurs.
The Beery VMI is one of the standardized assessment tools most widely used by occupational therapists to assess visual-motor integration. Currently, no specific norms exist for Canadian children. This study was developed to assess whether kindergarten children in Canada compared similarly to the norms established in the U.S. sample of the Beery VMI in order to validate its use with Canadian children. Possible gender differences were also examined. The Beery VMI was administered to 151 kindergarten children, aged 5 to 6 years, at the end of the school year. The data collection took place in seven schools, where the participants were individually assessed. T-tests were used to compare the mean standard scores of the Canadian sample to those provided in the Beery VMI, as well as gender differences. Overall, the study sample showed a similar score (p = .997) compared to the U.S. norms, as well as a significant gender difference; girls obtained higher mean scores than boys (p = .003). These findings support the use of the Beery VMI reference norms to interpret performance results obtained by Canadian kindergarten children. However, the significant gender difference observed should be addressed in future studies.
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