This study explored the utility of the impact response surface (IRS) approach for investigating model ensemble crop yield responses under a large range of changes in climate. IRSs of spring and winter wheat Triticum aestivum yields were constructed from a 26-member ensemble of process-based crop simulation models for sites in Finland, Germany and Spain across a latitudinal transect. The sensitivity of modelled yield to systematic increments of changes in temperature (-2 to + 9 degrees C) and precipitation (-50 to + 50%) was tested by modifying values of baseline (1981 to 2010) daily weather, with CO2 concentration fixed at 360 ppm. The IRS approach offers an effective method of portraying model behaviour under changing climate as well as advantages for analysing, comparing and presenting results from multi-model ensemble simulations. Though individual model behaviour occasionally departed markedly from the average, ensemble median responses across sites and crop varieties indicated that yields decline with higher temperatures and decreased precipitation and increase with higher precipitation. Across the uncertainty ranges defined for the IRSs, yields were more sensitive to temperature than precipitation changes at the Finnish site while sensitivities were mixed at the German and Spanish sites. Precipitation effects diminished under higher temperature changes. While the bivariate and multi-model characteristics of the analysis impose some limits to interpretation, the IRS approach nonetheless provides additional insights into sensitivities to inter-model and inter-annual variability. Taken together, these sensitivities may help to pinpoint processes such as heat stress, vernalisation or drought effects requiring refinement in future model developmen

A method to sort ÔJonagoldÕ apples based on the presence of defects was proposed. A multi-spectral vision system including four wavelength bands in the visible/NIR range was developed. Multi-spectral images of sound and defective fruits were acquired tending to cover the whole colour variability of this bicolour apple variety. Defects were grouped into four categories: slight defects, more serious defects, defects leading to the rejection of the fruit and recent bruises. Stem-ends/calyxes were detected using a correlation pattern matching algorithm. The efficiency of this method depended on the orientation of the stem-end/calyx according to the optical axis of the camera. Defect segmentation consisted in a pixel classification procedure based on the BayesÕ theorem and non-parametric models of the sound and defective tissue. Fruit classification tests were performed in order to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed method. No error was made on rejected fruits and high classification rates were reached for apples presenting serious defects and recent bruises. Fruits with slight defects presented a more important misclassification rate but those errors fitted however the quality tolerances of the European standard. Considering an actual ratio of sound fruits of 90%, less than 2% of defective fruits were classified into the sound ones.

This paper presents a hierarchical grading method applied to Jonagold apples. Several images covering the whole surface of the fruits were acquired thanks to a prototype grading machine.These images were then segmented and the features of the defects were extracted. During a learning procedure, the objects were classified into clusters by k-mean clustering. The classification probabilities of the objects were summarised and on this basis the fruits were graded using quadratic discriminant analysis. The fruits were correctly graded with a rate of 73 %. The errors were found having origins in the segmentation of the defects or for a particular wound, in a confusion with the calyx end.

A method based on colour information is proposed to detect defects on 'Golden Delicious' apples. In a first step, a colour model based on the variability of the normal colour is described. To segment the defects, each pixel of an apple image is compared with the model. If it matches the pixel, it is considered as belonging to healthy tissue, otherwise as a defect. Two other steps refine the segmentation, using either parameters computed on the whole fruit, or values computed locally. Some results are shown and discussed. The algorithm is able to segment a wide range of defects.

In this paper we present a novel application work for grading of apple fruits by machine vision. Following precise segmentation of defects by minimal confusion with stem/calyx areas on multispectral images, statistical, textural and geometric features are extracted from the segmented area. Using these features, statistical and syntactical classifiers are trained for two-and multi-category grading of the fruits. Results showed that feature selection provided improved performance by retaining only the important features, and statistical classifiers outperformed their syntactical counterparts. Compared to the state-of-the-art, our two-category grading solution achieved better recognition rates (93.5% overall accuracy). In this work we further provided a more realistic multi-category grading solution, where different classification architectures are evaluated. Our observations showed that the single-classifier architecture is computationally less demanding, while the cascaded one is more accurate.