All cells employ ATP-powered proteases for protein-quality control and regulation. In the ClpXP protease, ClpX is a AAA+ machine that recognizes specific protein substrates, unfolds these molecules, and then translocates the denatured polypeptide through a central pore and into ClpP for degradation. Here, we use optical-trapping nanometry to probe the mechanics of enzymatic unfolding and translocation of single molecules of a multidomain substrate. Our experiments demonstrate the capacity of ClpXP and ClpX to perform mechanical work under load, reveal very fast and highly cooperative unfolding of individual substrate domains, suggest a translocation step size of 5–8 amino acids, and support a power-stroke model of denaturation in which successful enzyme-mediated unfolding of stable domains requires coincidence between mechanical pulling by the enzyme and a transient stochastic reduction in protein stability. We anticipate that single-molecule studies of the mechanical properties of other AAA+ proteolytic machines will reveal many shared features with ClpXP.

CIpXP and other AAA+ proteases recognize, mechanically unfold, and translocate target proteins into a chamber for proteolysis. It is not known if these remarkable molecular machines operate by a stochastic or sequential mechanism or how power strokes relate to the ATP-hydrolysis cycle. Single-molecule optical trapping allows CIpXP unfolding to be directly visualized and reveals translocation steps of ~1–4 nm in length, but how these activities relate to solution degradation and the physical properties of substrate proteins remains unclear. By studying single-molecule degradation using different multi-domain substrates and CIpXP variants, we answer many of these questions and provide evidence for stochastic unfolding and translocation. We also present a mechanochemical model that accounts for single-molecule, biochemical, and structural results, for our observation of enzymatic memory in translocation stepping, for the kinetics of translocation steps of different sizes, and for probabilistic but highly coordinated subunit activity within the CIpX ring.

We report the effect of nanoparticle ligand charge on the structure of a covalently, site-specifically linked protein. Au nanoparticles with positive, negative, and neutral ligands were appended to a specific cysteine, C102, of Saccharomyces cerevisiae cytochrome c. Conjugates were purified by HPLC or gel electrophoresis. Circular dichroism spectroscopy shows that changing the nanoparticle ligand dramatically influences the attached cytochrome c structure. The protein retains its structure with neutral ligands but denatures in the presence of charged species. This is rationalized by the electrostatic interaction of amino acids in the local vicinity of C102 with the endgroups of the ligand.

The influence of hydrodynamic forces on eukaryotic flagella synchronization is investigated by triggering phase locking between a controlled external flow and the flagella of C. reinhardtii. Hydrodynamic forces required for synchronization are over an order of magnitude larger than hydrodynamic forces experienced in physiological conditions. Our results suggest that synchronization is due instead to coupling through cell internal fibers connecting the flagella. This conclusion is confirmed by observations of the vfl3 mutant, with impaired mechanical connection between the flagella.

Although nanoparticle-protein conjugates have been synthesized for numerous applications, bioconjugation remains a challenge, often resulting in denaturation or loss of protein function. This is partly because the protein-nanoparticle interface is poorly understood, which impedes the use of nanoparticles in nanomedicine. Although the effects of nanoparticle ligand and material on protein structure have been explored, the choice of the labeling site on the protein has not yet been systematically studied. To address this issue, we label cytochrome c site-specifically with a negatively charged Au nanoparticle via a covalent thiol-Au bond. The attachment site is controlled by cysteine mutations of surface residues. The effect of labeling on protein structure is probed by circular dichroism. Protein unfolding is the most severe when the nanoparticle is attached to the N-and C-terminal foldon, the core motif of cytochrome c. Also, when the nanoparticle is attached in the vicinity of charged residues, the amount of structural damage is greater because of salt-dependent electrostatic interactions with charged ligand bis(p-sulfonatophenyl) phenylphosphine on the nanoparticle. Molecular dynamics simulations also elucidate local to global structural perturbation depending on labeling site. These results suggest that the labeling site must be considered as one of the main design criteria for nanoparticle-protein conjugates.bioconjugation ͉ protein folding ͉ circular dichroism ͉ molecular dynamics simulation ͉ nanoscale interface N anomaterials hold much promise for biomedical applications such as multiscale imaging (1-3), novel therapeutic approaches (4), and biomolecular sensing (5). The emerging field of nanomedicine is based on exploiting the unique size-and material-dependent properties of nanomaterials. However, the biggest barrier in effectively using them is their biological interface. Historically, biological-inorganic interfaces suffer complications such as surface fouling in medical devices and nonspecific adsorption of proteins on sensors, inhibiting practical use. The problem significantly worsens for nanoscale systems because of their high surface-to-volume ratio. Nanoscale surfaces are physically and chemically different from the bulk, requiring nontraditional tools to effectively probe them. These factors suggest a pressing need for deeper understanding of the ''nano-bio'' interface.One particular issue related to the interface that limits the potential of nanoparticles (NPs) is conjugation to a biomolecule. Covalently linking a NP to a protein can affect both its structure and function. Even if protein structure is retained, the NP can sterically hinder substrate binding. NPs are large compared with dye molecules, and their interface with proteins is highly complex. NPs are not hard spheres but crystals with facets, edges, and vertices, and their passivating ligands can change conformation or come on and off the NP. Consequently, there are numerous nonspecific interactions between the NP and protein, where a...