This paper presents the main trends and results of the empirical research on grammar instruction across the "francophonie" for the [2005][2006][2007][2008][2009][2010][2011][2012][2013][2014][2015][2016] period. In addition to fostering writing and reading abilities in pupils, grammar instruction in the francophone world aims at giving pupils a metalinguistic knowledge of the working of the French language. From a methodological point of view, one key feature of recent research is the importance of direct observations in the classroom, both for the teachers' and the pupils' work. The research topics reveal a new interest in the teachers' work, notably the beginning teachers, and a focus on everyday practices. Grammar instruction is very present in the francophonie and some of its notable features include the presence of mixed contents (traditional and new grammar), notional economy, and a strong separation between the study of grammatical "rules" and their applications in exercises or texts. While insisting on the fact that grammatical knowledge learned by pupils first will be partial, transitory and instable before it is more complete and stable, the experimentation of innovative teaching methods has shown promising results for the acquisition of new knowledge (heuristic approach) and for the stabilization of knowledge (innovative dictations). The fragility of both experienced and beginning teachers' grammatical knowledge, notably in syntax, is a recurrent finding. On the pupils' side, there is a renewed interest in the pupils' ordinary work and their ability to do grammar. Recent research has shown a correlation between explicit grammatical knowledge and successful grammatical spelling; performances in writing are declining, and the use of more detailed criteria for the analysis of pupils' text reveal that a large part of the errors are linked to syntax.
Intimal hyperplasia and thrombosis are responsible for the poor patency rates of small-diameter vascular grafts. These complications could be avoided by a rapid and strong adhesion of endothelial cells to the prosthetic surfaces, which typically consist of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) for small-diameter vessels. We have previously described two peptide micropatterning strategies that increase the endothelialization rates of PTFE. The micropatterns were generated either by inkjet printing 300 μm squares or by spraying 10.1 ± 0.1 μm diameter droplets of the CGRGDS cell adhesion peptide, while the remaining surface was functionalized using the CWQPPRARI cell migration peptide. We now directly compare these two micropatterning strategies and examine the effect of hydrodynamic stress on human saphenous vein endothelial cells grown on the patterned surfaces. No significant differences in cell adhesion were observed between the two micropatterning methods. When compared to unpatterned surfaces treated with a uniform mixture of the two peptides, the cell expansion was significantly higher on sprayed or printed surfaces after 9 days of static cell culture. In addition, after 6 h of exposure to hydrodynamic stress, the cell retention and cell cytoskeleton reorganization on the patterned surfaces was improved when compared to untreated or random treated surfaces. These results indicate that micropatterned surfaces lead to improved rates of PTFE endothelialization with higher resistance to hydrodynamic stress.
Cet article dresse un portrait des erreurs de syntaxe, d’orthographe grammaticale et d’orthographe lexicale relevées dans environ 1000 textes d’élèves québécois de 4e et 6e primaire et de 2e et 5e secondaire. En général, les filles font moins d’erreurs que les garçons. À tous les niveaux scolaires, les erreurs les plus fréquentes relèvent de la syntaxe (en particulier, ponctuation et homophones grammaticaux). Le nombre d’erreurs liées à la phrase simple diminue peu avec le niveau. Parfois, il n’y a pas de différence significative entre certains niveaux, notamment entre la 2e secondaire et la 6e primaire. Aussi, les élèves de 2e secondaire font significativement plus d’erreurs d’accord régi par le sujet que ceux de la 6e primaire. Cette absence apparente de progression pour certaines catégories pourrait être attribuée à la production par les élèves plus âgés de contextes syntaxiques plus complexes. Les résultats permettent de discuter certains indicateurs de maturité syntaxique.
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