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Rationale The coordination of vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) constriction plays an important role in vascular function such as regulation of blood pressure. However, the mechanism responsible for VSMC communication is not clear in the resistance vasculature. Pannexins (Panx) are purine releasing channels permeable to the vasoconstrictor ATP and thus may play a role in the coordination of VSMC constriction. Objective We investigated the role of pannexins in phenylephrine (PE) and KCl mediated constriction of resistance arteries. Methods and Results Western blot, immunohistochemistry and immunogold labeling coupled to scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed the presence of Panx1 but not Panx2 or Panx3 in thoracodorsal resistance arteries (TDA). Functionally, the contractile response of pressurized TDA to PE was significantly decreased by multiple Panx inhibitors (mefloquine, probenecid and 10Panx1), ectonucleotidase (apyrase) and purinergic receptor inhibitors (suramin and reactive-blue-2). Electroporation of TDA with either Panx1-GFP or Panx1 siRNA showed enhanced and decreased constriction respectively in response to PE. Lastly, the Panx inhibitors did not alter constriction in response to KCl. This result is consistent with co-immunoprecipitation experiments from TDA, which suggested an association between Panx1 and α1D-adrenoreceptor. Conclusions Our data demonstrate for the first time a key role for Panx1 in resistance arteries, by contributing to the coordination of VSMC constriction and possibly regulation of blood pressure.

Both purinergic signaling through nucleotides such as ATP (adenosine 5′-triphosphate) and noradrenergic signaling through molecules such as norepinephrine regulate vascular tone and blood pressure. Pannexin1 (Panx1), which forms large-pore, ATP-releasing channels, is present in vascular smooth muscle cells in peripheral blood vessels and participates in noradrenergic responses. Using pharmacological approaches and mice conditionally lacking Panx1 in smooth muscle cells, we found that Panx1 contributed to vaso-constriction mediated by the α1 adrenoreceptor (α1AR), whereas vasoconstriction in response to serotonin or endothelin-1 was independent of Panx1. Analysis of the Panx1-deficient mice showed that Panx1 contributed to blood pressure regulation especially during the night cycle when sympathetic nervous activity is highest. Using mimetic peptides and site-directed mutagenesis, we identified a specific amino acid sequence in the Panx1 intracellular loop that is essential for activation by α1AR signaling. Collectively, these data describe a specific link between noradrenergic and purinergic signaling in blood pressure homeostasis.

The nucleotide adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) has classically been considered the cell's primary energy currency. Importantly, a novel role for ATP as an extracellular autocrine and/or paracrine signalling molecule has evolved over the past century and extensive work has been conducted to characterize the ATP-sensitive purinergic receptors expressed on almost all cell types in the body. Extracellular ATP elicits potent effects on vascular cells to regulate blood vessel tone but can also be involved in vascular pathologies such as atherosclerosis. While the effects of purinergic signalling in the vasculature have been well documented, the mechanism(s) mediating the regulated release of ATP from cells in the blood vessel wall and circulation are now a key target of investigation. The aim of this review is to examine the current proposed mechanisms of ATP release from vascular cells, with a special emphasis on the transporters and channels involved in ATP release from vascular smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, circulating red blood cells, and perivascular sympathetic nerves, including vesicular exocytosis, plasma membrane F(1)/F(0)-ATP synthase, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, connexin hemichannels, and pannexin channels.

Objective-To determine whether S-nitrosylation of connexins (Cxs) modulates gap junction communication between endothelium and smooth muscle. Methods and Results-Heterocellular communication is essential for endothelium control of smooth muscle constriction; however, the exact mechanism governing this action remains unknown. Cxs and NO have been implicated in regulating heterocellular communication in the vessel wall. The myoendothelial junction serves as a conduit to facilitate gap junction communication between endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells within the resistance vasculature. By using isolated vessels and a vascular cell coculture, we found that Cx43 is constitutively S-nitrosylated on cysteine 271 because of active endothelial NO synthase compartmentalized at the myoendothelial junction. Conversely, we found that stimulation of smooth muscle cells with the constrictor phenylephrine caused Cx43 to become denitrosylated because of compartmentalized S-nitrosoglutathione reductase, which attenuated channel permeability. We measured S-nitrosoglutathione breakdown and NO x concentrations at the myoendothelial junction and found S-nitrosoglutathione reductase activity to precede NO release. Key Words: NO Ⅲ GSNO-R Ⅲ connexin Ⅲ myoendothelial junction Ⅲ nitrosylation W ithin the vessel wall of resistance arteries, coordinated vascular smooth muscle cell (SMC) and endothelial cell (EC) function is integrated by complex intercellular signaling to regulate the constriction and dilation of the artery. The anatomic structures that facilitate direct SMC and EC communication within the resistance artery are myoendothelial junctions (MEJs), which are cellular extensions from ECs or SMCs that project through the internal elastic lamina [1][2][3] and link the plasma membranes of the 2 different cell types together. The gap junctions (GJs) at the MEJ provide a conduit for second messenger and electric signaling between the 2 cell types. 2,4,5 For example, phenylephrine (PE) stimulation of SMCs induces inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP 3 ) generation and an increase in [Ca 2ϩ ] i concentrations, constricting the artery. It is thought that the IP 3 progresses to the adjacent EC through GJs at the MEJ, initiating an increase in [Ca 2ϩ ] i and the release of NO to modulate the magnitude of vasoconstriction, thereby regulating the tone of the artery. 6 -8 Elucidation of the mechanisms regulating this process could provide novel insight into blood pressure regulation; however, the process remains uncharacterized. Conclusion-This study provides evidence for compartmentalized S-nitrosylation/denitrosylationGJs are intracellular signaling channels formed by 2 hexameric hemichannels, with each adjacent cell contributing 1 hemichannel. Connexin (Cx) proteins compose the channels, of which 4 different Cxs have been identified in the vasculature, with multiple studies demonstrating a potentially important role for Cx43 at the MEJ. 9 Recent studies have demonstrated that GJ communication and trafficking of Cx43 are mod...

Aims: Pannexins (Panx) form ATP release channels and it has been proposed that they play an important role in the regulation of vascular tone. However, distribution of Panx across the arterial vasculature is not documented. Methods: We tested antibodies against Panx1, Panx2 and Panx3 on human embryonic kidney cells (which do not endogenously express Panx proteins) transfected with plasmids encoding each Panx isoform and Panx1^–/– mice. Each of the Panx antibodies was found to be specific and was tested on isolated arteries using immunocytochemistry. Results: We demonstrated that Panx1 is the primary isoform detected in the arterial network. In large arteries, Panx1 is primarily in endothelial cells, whereas in small arteries and arterioles it localizes primarily to the smooth muscle cells. Panx1 was the predominant isoform expressed in coronary arteries, except in arteries less than 100 µm where Panx3 became detectable. Only Panx3 was expressed in the juxtaglomerular apparatus and cortical arterioles. The pulmonary artery and alveoli had expression of all 3 Panx isoforms. No Panx isoforms were detected at the myoendothelial junctions. Conclusion: We conclude that the specific localized expression of Panx channels throughout the vasculature points towards an important role for these channels in regulating the release of ATP throughout the arterial network.

Objective Hb α and eNOS form a macromolecular complex at myoendothelial junctions; the functional role of this interaction remains undefined. To test if coupling of eNOS and Hb α regulates NO signaling, vascular reactivity and blood pressure using a mimetic peptide of Hb α to disrupt this interaction. Approach and Results In silico modeling of Hb α and eNOS identified a conserved sequence of interaction. By mutating portions of Hb α, we identified a specific sequence that binds eNOS. A mimetic peptide of the Hb α sequence (Hb α X) was generated to disrupt this complex. Utilizing in vitro binding assays with purified Hb α and eNOS and ex vivo proximity ligation assays on resistance arteries, we have demonstrated that Hb α X significantly decreased interaction between eNOS and Hb α. FITC-labeling of Hb α X revealed localization to holes in the internal elastic lamina (i.e., myoendothelial junctions). To test the functional effects of Hb α X, we measured cGMP and vascular reactivity. Our results reveal augmented cGMP production and altered vasoconstriction with Hb α X. To test the in vivo effects of these peptides on blood pressure, normotensive and hypertensive mice were injected with Hb α X which caused a significant decrease in blood pressure; injection of Hb α X into eNOS−/− mice had no effect. Conclusion These results identify a novel sequence on Hb α that is important for Hb α / eNOS complex formation and is critical for nitric oxide signaling at myoendothelial junctions.

Post-translational modifications are a common cellular process that is used by cells to ensure a particular protein function. This can happen in a variety of ways, for example from the addition of phosphates or sugar residues to a particular amino acid ensuring proper protein life cycle and function. In this review, we assess evidence for ubiquitination, glycosylation, phosphorylation, S-nitrosylation as well as other modifications on connexins and pannexin proteins. Based on the literature, we find that post-translational modifications are an important component of connexin and pannexin regulation.