Nowadays, the estimation of volumetric soil water content (θ) through apparent dielectric permittivity (εa) is the most widely used method. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of the high iron content of two sandy loam soils on estimating their water content using two dielectric sensors. These sensors are the WET sensor operating at 20 MHz and the ML2 sensor operating at 100 MHz. Experiments on specific soil columns, in the laboratory, by mixing different amounts of water in the soils to obtain a range of θ values under constant temperature conditions were conducted. Analysis of the results showed that both sensors, based on manufacturer calibration, led to overestimation of θ. This overestimation is due to the high measured values of εa by both sensors used. The WET sensor, operating at a lower frequency and being strongly affected by soil characteristics, showed the greatest overestimation. The difference of εa values between the two sensors ranged from 14 to 19 units at the maximum actual soil water content (θm). Compared to the Topp equation, the WET sensor measures 2.3 to 2.8 fold higher value of εa. From the results, it was shown that the relationship θm-εa0.5 remained linear even in the case of these soils with high iron content and the multi-point calibration (CALALL) is a good option where individual calibration is needed.
The combustion of biomass has a neutral atmospheric CO2 fingerprint, because the overall produced CO2 emissions are balanced by the CO2 uptake from the plants during their growth. The current study evaluates the environmental impact of the biomass ash wastes originating from the combustion of olive-kernel residuals for electricity production in accordance with Directive EE/2003. Additionally, the study investigates the potential use of such waste in the restoration of depleted calcareous aggregate quarries in the frame of the circular economy, as a substrate or as a soil amendment. Olive-kernel residual ash, obtained from a 5 MW operating electricity power plant, was mixed with soil and tested for its adequacy for use as a substrate or soil amendment in a depleted calcareous aggregate quarry. The positive effects of the olive-kernel residual bottom ashes in the availability and the mobility of major and trace elements were assessed in both batch and column experiments. The effect of biomass ash in soil amelioration was assessed via pot experiments, by examining the growth of two plant species Cupressus sempervirens (cypress) and Dichondra repens (alfalfa). The environmental characterization of the olive-kernel residual bottom ash indicates that the water-leachable concentrations of controlled elements are, generally, within the acceptable limits for disposal as inert waste in landfills. However, the bottom ash was found to contain significant amounts of K, Ca and Mg, which are macro-nutrients for the growth of plants, serving as a slow-release fertilizer by adding nutrients in the soil. The application of bottom ash in the alkaline soil had a minor positive effect in plant growth while the addition of the ash in the acidic soil exhibited considerable effect in the growth of Dichondra repens and Cupressus sempervirens due to the release of nutrients and to the pH conditioning. Olive-kernel residual bottom ash has been proved to be appropriate as a soil amendment, and as a soil substrate for the restoration of depleted quarries, decreasing the requirement for commercial inorganic fertilizers.
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