Summary
E-commerce in Europe is becoming increasingly important in all market segments, and in most segments it already accounts for few or even several dozen percent of total trade. According to a report by E-commerce Europe, it has already left the US market behind in 2010. Year by year, the willingness to buy products, which until recently were not treated by many consumers as “online”, such as food products, is growing.
Considering the above, the aim of the article is to determine the level of development of e-commerce in the European Union (EU-28). In the research procedure the literature and EUROSTAT data were used. The following research methods were used for data analysis: literature analysis, the Hellwig’s method and the threshold grouping method. The analysis was carried out in two periods, i.e. in 2014 and 2018, which allowed assessing the direction of changes in the surveyed.
This paper analyzes the twin deficit hypothesis - simultaneous current
account deficit and budget deficit - in three small open Baltic countries
(Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) running under certain forms of the fixed
exchange rate regime. The idea of twin deficits is tested using the vector
error correction model (VECM), Granger causality tests and forecast variance
decomposition, involving three variables: current account, budget balance,
and investments. The new estimates confirm significant long-run positive
relation between budget balance and current account in Estonia and Lithuania
on one hand and the negative one in case of budget balance and investments in
all three considered countries. The results of the analysis are specific to
each country as they depend on their particular macroeconomic background. The
contribution was elaborated within the project VEGA 1/0973/11.
Summary
The article shows the problem of excessive low emission in the district of Nowa Sól and points to the social issues that can affect a delay in the introduction of specific environmental actions. The article also identifies the main sources that contribute to the formation of low emission in the district of Nowa Sól. Moreover, it noted the actions planned to be taken in the area of the Nowa Sól district to reduce low emission and their evaluation has been made. There has been also pointed to the direction of the management of low emission, which will have to be taken in order to significantly reduce the low emission of the analysed area and the solutions, already introduced in Poland without a public outcry, have been identified. At the end of the paper the conclusions have been presented.
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