Early adolescence is characterized by rapid changes in executive function and increased vulnerability to internalizing difficulties. The aim of this study was to explore whether internalizing symptoms are stable across early adolescence and to identify possible links with executive function. Using data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study (ABCD), we identified four dimensions of internalizing symptoms from item-level ratings on the Child Behavior Checklist at ages 10 (n = 10,841) and 12 (n = 5,846), with an invariant factor structure across time. These dimensions corresponded to anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and somatic problems. We then examined associations between these dimensions and three aspects of executive function at age 10 measured by the NIH Toolbox: inhibition, shifting and working memory. Worse shifting and inhibition at age 10 was associated with elevated symptoms of anxiety and withdrawal cross-sectionally, while poor inhibition was also uniquely associated with symptoms of depression. Longitudinal associations were more limited: Worse inhibition at age 10 predicted greater symptoms of withdrawal at age 12, while worse shifting predicted fewer symptoms of anxiety 2 years later. These findings suggest that poor executive function in early adolescence is associated with greater internalizing difficulties and poor inhibition may contribute to later social withdrawal.

Early adolescence is characterised by rapid changes in executive function and increased vulnerability to internalising difficulties. Using data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study (ABCD) (N= 11,878), we first explored the dimensional structure of internalising symptoms from age 10 to 12 years and then examined cross-sectional and longitudinal links between these dimensions and executive function. Three aspects of executive function — inhibition, shifting/switching, and working memory — were measured at age 10 using tasks from the NIH Toolbox Cognitive Battery. Exploratory factor analysis was used to delineate higher order dimensions from measures of internalising symptoms at age 10 and 12, and linear regression analysis was used to estimate the associations between factor scores on these dimensions and executive function at age 10. A four-factor solution best captured internalising symptoms at both time points, with an invariant factor structure. These dimensions corresponded to anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and somatic problems. Poor executive function at age 10 was associated with elevated symptoms of anxiety, depression, and withdrawal cross-sectionally, with evidence for unique contributions of inhibition and shifting. Longitudinal associations were more limited, with inhibition and working memory at age 10 predicting more severe withdrawal at age 12. These findings suggest that poor executive function at the start of adolescence may confer risk for internalising difficulties and, in particular, for the onset of social withdrawal. These associations, however, were moderate suggesting other factors not measured here, such as social and biological factors, are likely stronger indicators of risk for mental ill-health.

Early life adversity (ELA) is associated with poor cognitive and mental health outcomes. This study uses a hybrid machine learning approach that combines random forest classification with hierarchical clustering to clarify whether different forms of adversity are associated with distinct cognitive alterations, and identify whether any such changes are related mental health vulnerability in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) cohort (n=5,955). Cognitive performance across measures spanning language, reasoning, memory, risk-taking, affective control, and reward-processing predicted whether a child had a history of ELA with reasonable accuracy (67%), and with good specificity and sensitivity (>70%). Hierarchical clustering identified two subgroups within the adversity group and two within the no-adversity group that were distinguished by cognitive ability (low vs high). There was no evidence for specific associations between the type or degree of adverse exposure and cognitive profile. While poorer cognitive function predicted worse mental health in unexposed children, cognitive ability was unrelated to mental health in the ELA group. These findings demonstrate that that while children who experience ELA have poorer mental health, their mental health does not differ as a function of cognitive ability, thus providing novel insight into the heterogeneity of psychiatric risk following adversity.

Early life adversity (ELA) is associated with poor cognitive and mental health outcomes. This study uses a hybrid machine learning approach that combines random forest classification with hierarchical clustering to clarify whether different forms of adversity are associated with distinct cognitive alterations, and identify whether any such changes are related mental health vulnerability in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) cohort (n=5,955). Cognitive performance across measures spanning language, reasoning, memory, risk-taking, affective control, and reward-processing predicted whether a child had a history of ELA with reasonable accuracy (67%), and with good specificity and sensitivity (>70%). Hierarchical clustering identified two subgroups within the adversity group and two within the no-adversity group that were distinguished by cognitive ability (low vs high). There was no evidence for specific associations between the type or degree of adverse exposure and cognitive profile. While poorer cognitive function predicted worse mental health in unexposed children, cognitive ability was unrelated to mental health in the ELA group. These findings demonstrate that that while children who experience ELA have poorer mental health, their mental health does not differ as a function of cognitive ability, thus providing novel insight into the heterogeneity of psychiatric risk following adversity.