During the last several years, evidence that various enzymes hydrolyze NAD into bioactive products prompted scientists to revisit or design strategies able to increase intracellular availability of the dinucleotide. However, plasma membrane permeability to NAD and the mitochondrial origin of the dinucleotide still wait to be clearly defined. Here, we report that intracellular NAD contents increased upon exposure of cell lines or primary cultures to exogenous NAD (eNAD). NAD precursors could not reproduce the effects of eNAD, and they were not found in the incubating medium containing eNAD, thereby suggesting direct cellular eNAD uptake. We found that in mitochondria of cells exposed to eNAD, NAD and NADH as well as oxygen consumption and ATP production were increased. Conversely, DNA repair, a well known NADdependent process, was unaltered upon eNAD exposure. We also report that eNAD conferred significant cytoprotection from apoptosis triggered by staurosporine, C2-ceramide, or N-methyl-NЈ-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine. In particular, eNAD reduced staurosporine-induced loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and ensuing caspase activation. Of importance, pharmacological inhibition or silencing of the NAD-dependent enzyme SIRT1 abrogated the ability of eNAD to provide protection from staurosporine, having no effect on eNAD-dependent protection from C2-ceramide or N-methyl-NЈ-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine. Taken together, our findings, on the one hand, strengthen the hypothesis that eNAD crosses the plasma membrane intact and, on the other hand, provide evidence that increased NAD contents significantly affects mitochondrial bioenergetics and sensitivity to apoptosis.

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The NAD rescue pathway consists of two enzymatic steps operated by nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (Nampt) and nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferases. Recently, the potent Nampt inhibitor FK866 has been identified and evaluated in clinical trials against cancer. Yet, how Nampt inhibition affects NAD contents and bioenergetics is in part obscure. It is also unknown whether NAD rescue takes place in mitochondria, and FK866 alters NAD homeostasis within the organelle. Here, we show that FK866-dependent reduction of the NAD contents is paralleled by a concomitant increase of ATP in various cell types, in keeping with ATP utilization for NAD resynthesis. We also show that poly-and mono(ADP-ribose) transferases rather than Sirt-1 are responsible for NAD depletion in HeLa cells exposed to FK866. Mass spectrometry reveals that the drug distributes in the cytosolic and mitochondrial compartment. However, the cytoplasmic but not the mitochondrial NAD pool is reduced upon acute or chronic exposure to the drug. Accordingly, Nampt does not localize within the organelles and their bioenergetics is not affected by the drug. In the mouse, FK866-dependent reduction of NAD contents in various organs is prevented by inhibitors of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases or the NAD precursor kynurenine. For the first time, our data indicate that mitochondria lack the canonical NAD rescue pathway, broadening current understanding of cellular bioenergetics.Several enzymes that transform NAD, used as a bona fide substrate, into metabolites displaying pleiotypic properties have been recently identified (1-4). Among them, ADP-ribose (ADPR) 2 transferases such as poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP)-1, -2, -3, -10, tankyrases, v-PARP, and others members of the same family are involved in processes such as nuclear homeostasis, cell differentiation, and death (5, 6). Mono(ADPribose) transferases (MART) are NAD-consuming enzymes present on cell membranes (but probably also in cytosol and organelles) that are still poorly understood (7). Additional NAD-consuming enzymes are CD-38/CD157, two ectoenzymes synthesizing ADPR, and the intracellular Ca 2ϩ -mobilizing compound cyclic ADPR (8), and sirtuins, a family of proteins encompassing seven members (Sirt1-7) involved in numerous processes such as chromatin homeostasis, transcription, cell death, and lifespan extension (9).Because of the constitutive activity of the NAD-consuming enzymes, eukaryotic cells evolved a rescue pathway leading to NAD resynthesis from nicotinamide (Nam). NAD rescue occurs in parallel to NAD neosynthesis from tryptophan or nicotinic acid (the so-called "kynurenine" and "Priess-Handler" pathways, respectively) (10, 11). Recently, work from the Brenner laboratory (12) identified nicotinamide riboside as an additional NAD precursor. The biochemical route of NAD rescue is composed by two enzymatic steps, the first operated by nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (Nampt), forming nicotinamide mononucleotide from Nam and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate, and the second driv...

Arginase 2, inducible-and endothelial-nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS and eNOS), indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) and TGF-beta, might impair immune functions in prostate cancer (PCA) patients. However, their expression was not comparatively analysed in PCA and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). We evaluated the expression of these genes in PCA and BPH tissues. Seventy-six patients (42 BPH, 34 PCA) were enrolled. Arginase 2, eNOS and iNOS gene expression was similar in BPH and PCA tissues. TGF-beta1 gene expression was higher in BPH than in PCA tissues (p=0.035). IDO gene expression was more frequently detectable (p=0.00007) and quantitatively higher (p=0.00001) in PCA tissues than in BPH. IDO protein, expressed in endothelial cells from both BPH and PCA, was detectable in tumour cells in PCA showing evidence of high specific gene expression. In these patients, IDO gene expression correlated with kynurenine/tryptophan ratio in sera. Thus high expression of IDO gene is specifically detectable in PCA. 1 High expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase gene in prostate cancerChantal FEDER-MENGUS 1 * and Stephen WYLER 1 * , Tvrtko HUDOLIN 2 , Robin RUSZAT 1 , Lukas BUBENDORF 3 , Alberto CHIARUGI 4 , Maria PITTELLI 4 , Walter P. Seventy-six patients, 42 BPH and 34 PCA, were enrolled. Expression of arginase 2, eNOS and iNOS genes was similar in BPH and PCA tissues. TGF-β1 gene expression was significantly higher in BPH than in PCA tissues (p=0.035). In contrast IDO gene expression was more frequently detectable in PCA as compared to BPH (p=0.00007). Its extent was also significantly higher in PCA than in BPH (p=0.00001).Immunohistochemistry revealed IDO protein in endothelial cells from both BPH and PCA. However, in PCA showing evidence of high specific gene expression, IDO was detectable in tumor cells as well. In patients bearing these tumors, IDO gene expression correlated with kynurenine/tryptophan ratio in sera.These data indicate that while genes encoding Arginase 2, iNOS, eNOS and TGF-β immunosuppressive factors are expressed in PCA and BPH, high expression of IDO gene is only detectable in PCA.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) is a NAD-consuming enzyme with an emerging key role in epigenetic regulation of gene transcription. Although PARP-1 expression is characteristically restricted to the nucleus, a few studies report the mitochondrial localization of the enzyme and its ability to regulate organelle functioning. Here, we show that, despite exclusive nuclear localization of PARP-1, mitochondrial homeostasis is compromised in cell lines exposed to PARP-1 pharmacological inhibitors or small interfering RNA. PARP-1 suppression reduces integrity of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), as well as expression of mitochondria-encoded respiratory complex subunits COX-1, COX-2, and ND-2. Accordingly, PARP-1 localizes at promoters of nuclear genes encoding both the mtDNA repair proteins UNG1, MYH1, and APE1 and the mtDNA transcription factors TFB1M and TFB2M. It is noteworthy that poly(ADPribosyl)ation is required for nuclear gene expression of these mitochondrial proteins. Consistent with these findings, PARP-1 suppression impairs mitochondrial ATP production. Our results indicate that PARP-1 plays a central role in mitochondrial homeostasis by epigenetically regulating nuclear genes involved in mtDNA repair and transcription. These data might have important implications in pharmacology of PARP-1 inhibitors as well as clinical oncology and aging.

Therapeutic hypothermia is of relevance to treatment of increased body temperature and brain injury, but drugs inducing selective, rapid, and safe cooling in humans are not available. Here, we show that injections of adenosine 5 0 -monophosphate (AMP), an endogenous nucleotide, promptly triggers hypothermia in mice by directly activating adenosine A1 receptors (A1R) within the preoptic area (POA) of the hypothalamus. Inhibition of constitutive degradation of brain extracellular AMP by targeting ecto 5 0 -nucleotidase, also suffices to prompt hypothermia in rodents. Accordingly, sensitivity of mice and rats to the hypothermic effect of AMP is inversely related to their hypothalamic 5 0 -nucleotidase activity. Single-cell electrophysiological recording indicates that AMP reduces spontaneous firing activity of temperature-insensitive neurons of the mouse POA, thereby retuning the hypothalamic thermoregulatory set point towards lower temperatures. Adenosine 5 0 -monophosphate also suppresses prostaglandin E2-induced fever in mice, having no effects on peripheral hyperthermia triggered by dioxymetamphetamine (ecstasy) overdose. Together, data disclose the role of AMP, 5 0 -nucleotidase, and A1R in hypothalamic thermoregulation, as well and their therapeutic relevance to treatment of febrile illness.

Background and purpose: Maintenance of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) polymers at homoeostatic levels by PAR glycohydrolase (PARG) is central in cell functioning and survival. Yet the pharmacological relevance of PARG inhibitors is still debated. Gallotannin, a complex mixture of hydrolysable tannins from oak gall, inhibits PARG but which of its constituents is responsible for the inhibition and whether the pharmacodynamic properties are due to its antioxidant properties, has not yet been established. Experimental approach: A structure-activity relationship study was conducted on different natural and synthetic tannins/ galloyl derivatives as potential PARG inhibitors, using a novel in vitro enzymic assay. Cytotoxicity was assayed in cultured HeLa cells. Key results: Mono-galloyl glucose compounds were potent inhibitors of PARG, with activities similar to that of ADP-(hydroxymethyl) pyrrolidinediol, the most potent PARG inhibitor yet identified. When tested on HeLa cells exposed to the PAR polymerase (PARP)-1-activating compound 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG), 3-galloyl glucose weakly inhibited PAR degradation. Conversely, the more lipophilic, 3-galloyl-1,2-O-isopropylidene glucose, despite being inactive on the pure enzyme, efficiently prolonged the half-life of the polymers in intact HeLa cells. Also, PARG inhibitors, but not radical scavengers, reduced, in part, cell death caused by MNNG. Conclusions and implications: Taken together, our findings identify mono-galloyl glucose derivatives as potent PARG inhibitors, and emphasize the active function of this enzyme in cell death.

In this paper, we report the discovery of dual M3 antagonist-PDE4 inhibitor (MAPI) compounds for the inhaled treatment of pulmonary diseases. The identification of dual compounds was enabled by the intuition that the fusion of a PDE4 scaffold derived from our CHF-6001 series with a muscarinic scaffold through a common linking ring could generate compounds active versus both the transmembrane M3 receptor and the intracellular PDE4 enzyme. Two chemical series characterized by two different muscarinic scaffolds were investigated. SAR optimization was aimed at obtaining M3 nanomolar affinity coupled with nanomolar PDE4 inhibition, which translated into anti-bronchospastic efficacy ex vivo (inhibition of rat trachea contraction) and into anti-inflammatory efficacy in vitro (inhibition of TNFα release). Among the best compounds, compound 92a achieved the goal of demonstrating in vivo efficacy and duration of action in both the bronchoconstriction and inflammation assays in rat after intratracheal administration.