Eagle's syndrome represents symptoms brought on by compression of regional structures by elongation of the styloid process or ossification of the stylohyoid or stylomandibular ligaments. Watt Eagle described it for the first time in 1937, dividing it into two subtypes: the "classic syndrome" and the "stylo-carotid artery syndrome." Many theories have been put forth regarding its pathogenesis. Depending on the underlying pathogenetic mechanism and the anatomical structures compressed or irritated by the styloid process, symptoms vary greatly, ranging from cervicofacial pain to cerebral ischemia. The syndrome generally follows tonsillectomy or trauma. Diagnosis is confirmed by radiological findings. Palpation of the styloid process in the tonsillar fossa and infiltration with anesthesia are also used in making the diagnosis. The treatment is primarily surgical; however, some conservative treatments have also been used. The current literature on Eagle's syndrome is reviewed, highlighting its often underestimated frequency and its clinical importance.

The postsynaptic fibers of the pterygopalatine or sphenopalatine ganglion (PPG or SPG) supply the lacrimal and nasal glands. The PPG appears to play an important role in various pain syndromes including headaches, trigeminal and sphenopalatine neuralgia, atypical facial pain, muscle pain, vasomotor rhinitis, eye disorders, and herpes infection. Clinical trials have shown that these pain disorders can be managed effectively with sphenopalatine ganglion blockade (SPGB). In addition, regional anesthesia of the distribution area of the SPG sensory fibers for nasal and dental surgery can be provided by SPGB via a transnasal, transoral, or lateral infratemporal approach. To arouse the interest of the modern-day clinicians in the use of the SPGB, the advantages, disadvantages, and modifications of the available methods for blockade are discussed.▪

Horseshoe kidney (HSK) is the most common renal fusion, which is characterized by three anatomic anomalies: ectopia, malrotation and vascular changes. Patients with HSK are prone to a variety of complications, genitourinary and non-genitourinary. In this paper, the anatomy of HSK is delineated with a great emphasis on its blood supply. After reviewing the literature, the arterial supply patterns found by each author were categorized according to the classification system proposed by Graves. The majority of HSKs were found to be supplied by renal arteries derived from the abdominal aorta below the isthmus or by vessels originating from the common iliac arteries. In addition, the abnormalities associated with HSK are highlighted and classified in anatomical variations, congenital anomalies as well as in pathologic conditions related to HSK.

The ARSA has a relative high incidence in Greeks and a female predominance. The aberrant vessel follows a retroesophageal course in most cases and only one case with a location between trachea and esophagus was detected. The retroesophageal ARSA justifies the wide variety of clinical manifestations and complications occurred.

Context: Piriform muscle syndrome can be caused by abnormal passage of the sciatic nerve or one of its parts through the belly of the piriform muscle. Objective: To analyze the anatomical and measurement relationships between the piriform muscle and the sciatic nerve in order to contribute towards better anatomoclinical understanding of the gluteal region. Method: Twenty adult cadavers of both sexes were used. The sciatic nerve and piriform muscle were dissected, measured and photodocumented. Results: The sciatic nerve was seen to be a single trunk passing through the lower margin of the piriform muscle in 85% of the 40 gluteal regions, and 15% showed bilateral variation characterized by the passage of the common fibular nerve through the piriform muscle. The data obtained did not show any statistically significant differences.

Aim of the present study was to determine the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on anatomy teaching to medical and dental students comparing the traditional anatomy teaching with three remote teaching modalities. A cross-sectional study was conducted among undergraduate medical and dental students of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Four hundred and twenty students who attended anatomy classes during COVID-19 outbreak in Greece, were asked to fill in a questionnaire of 22 questions evaluating the formats of the different courses provided. Each student was asked to complete the questionnaire anonymously via the Google Forms ® platform. A total of 200 students participated. During the lockdown, 59.5% of students attended all online anatomy lectures compared to 44.5% in the pre-pandemic year. Overall, the higher percentage of 73.5% was satisfied with the traditional anatomy teaching, instead of 56% which were satisfied with the effectiveness of online anatomy lectures. Asking whether any remote educational method can partially or completely replace the traditional anatomy teaching, the majority of students replied "no" for all the three remote modalities. The traditional anatomy teaching remains the most preferred and effective teaching modality. The students ranked online anatomy lectures and pre-recorded anatomy lectures in second place in terms of effectiveness and preference. The development of remote learning methods has increased students' active participation in anatomy lessons, but significantly negatively affected the students' performance at exams. Remote learning cannot replace the traditional anatomy teaching method, but online lectures could be incorporated into anatomy curricula as an additional tool.

Several congenital anomalies regarding the right (RVA) and left (LVA) vertebral artery have been described. The current paper aims to perform a systematic literature review of the variable vertebral artery (VA) origin from the aortic arch (AOA) and its branches. The incidence of these variants and the ensuing AOA branching pattern are highlighted. Atypical origin cases were found more commonly unilaterally, while LVA presented the majority of the aberrancies. The LVA emersion from the AOA (3.6%) and the RVA from the right common carotid artery (RCCA) (0.14%) were the commonest origin variations. Aberrant RVA origin as last branch of the AOA is very rare. Eighteen cases (0.12%) with an aberrant right subclavian artery (ARSCA) were found. Among them, the RVA originated from the RCCA and right subclavian artery in 94.4 and 5.6%, respectively. Sporadic cases had an AOA origin bilaterally; RVA and LVA had a double origin in 0.027 and 0.11%, respectively. A dual origin was detected in 0.0069%, bilaterally. The atypical VA origin may coexist with: (i) an ARSCA, (ii) a common origin of brachiocephalic artery and left common carotid artery (the misnomer bovine arch) and (iii) a bicarotid trunk. The aberrant VA origin favors hemodynamic alterations, predisposing to cerebrovascular disorders and intracranial aneurysm formation. Detailed information of VA variants is crucial for both endovascular interventionists and diagnostic radiologists involved in the treatment of patients with cerebrovascular disease. Such information may prove useful to minimize the risk of VA injury in several procedures.

Our results provide useful information that will enable effective and reliable surgical intervention in the FM region with the maximum safety and widest possible exposure.