Fructo- and galacto-oligosaccharides (FOS and GOS) are non-digestible oligosaccharides with prebiotic properties that can be incorporated into a wide number of products. This review details the general outlines for the production of FOS and GOS, both by enzymatic synthesis using disaccharides or other substrates, and by hydrolysis of polysaccharides. Special emphasis is laid on technological aspects, raw materials, properties, and applications.

Muffins are sweet baked products highly appreciated by consumers because of their soft texture and characteristic taste. The aim of this work was to study the influence of baking conditions on muffins' quality. Surface crust color was monitored during baking tests at oven temperatures ranging from 140 to 220 °C, and browning kinetics was modeled by means of a browning index, BI, which follows a logistic model; a joint analysis of core temperature profile and BI curve can assist in the prediction of baking time. Finally, weight loss, crust/crumb ratio, crumb and crust moisture content, porosity, crumb and global densities, and texture were measured in the already baked muffin. The water content in the crumb remains almost constant, while considerable dehydration occurs in the crust. Finally, the results showed that intermediate oven temperatures led to a more porous, aerated, and soft crumb, with intermediate textural properties.

The highly demanding conditions of industrial processes may lower the stability and affect the activity of enzymes used as biocatalysts. Enzyme immobilization emerged as an approach to promote stabilization and easy removal of enzymes for their reusability. The aim of this review is to go through the principal immobilization strategies addressed to achieve optimal industrial processes with special care on those reported for two types of enzymes: b-galactosidases and fructosyltransferases. The main methods used to immobilize these two enzymes are adsorption, entrapment, covalent coupling and cross-linking or aggregation (no support is used), all of them having pros and cons. Regarding the support, it should be cost-effective, assure the reusability and an easy recovery of the enzyme, increasing its stability and durability. The discussion provided showed that the type of enzyme, its origin, its purity, together with the type of immobilization method and the support will affect the performance during the enzymatic synthesis. Enzymes' immobilization involves interdisciplinary knowledge including enzymology, nanotechnology, molecular dynamics, cellular physiology and process design. The increasing availability of facilities has opened a variety of possibilities to define strategies to optimize the activity and re-usability of b-galactosidases and fructosyltransferases, but there is still great place for innovative developments.