Arcobacter cryaerophilus is an emerging enteropathogen and potential zoonotic agent transmitted by food and water. In Costa Rica, this bacterium has not been associated with cases of human gastroenteritis, even though it has been isolated from farm animals, especially poultry. This paper reports the first isolation of A. cryaerophilus from a human case of bloody watery diarrhea and the virulence genes associated with this isolate.

Arcobacter species have been recognized as potential food- and waterborne pathogens. The lack of standardized isolation methods and the relatively scarce knowledge about their prevalence and distribution as emerging pathogens are due to the limitations in their detection and identification. This study aimed to determine the presence and the identification of Arcobacter in chicken breast samples commercially retailed in San José, Costa Rica, as well as to describe the adherence and invasive potential of the strains to human cells (HEp-2). Fifty chicken breast samples were collected from retail markets in the metropolitan area of the country. Six different isolation methodologies were applied for the isolation of Arcobacter. Isolation strategies consisted of combinations of enrichments in de Boer or Houf selective broths and subsequent isolation in blood agar (directly or with a previous passive membrane filtration step) or Arcobacter selective agar. Suspicious colonies were identified with a genus-specific PCR, whereas species-level identification was achieved with a multiplex PCR. The overall isolation frequency of Arcobacter was 56%. From the isolation strategies, the combination of enrichment in Houf selective broth followed by filtration on blood agar showed the best performance, with a sensitivity of 89% and a specificity of 84%. A total of 46 isolates were confirmed as Arcobacter with the genus-specific PCR, from which 27 (59%) corresponded to Arcobacter butzleri, 9 (19%) to Arcobacter cryaerophilus, and 10 (22%) were not identified with this multiplex PCR. Regarding the potential pathogenicity, 75% of the isolates presented adherence to HEp-2 cells, while only 22% were invasive to that cell line. All invasive strains were A. butzleri or nonidentified strains. The results show the presence of potentially pathogenic Arcobacter in poultry and recognize the importance it should receive as a potential foodborne pathogen from public health authorities.

Arcobacter is a genus of growing importance worldwide; some of its species are considered emerging enteropathogens and potential zoonotic agents. In Costa Rica, as well as in other countries, its isolation has been reported, so the objective of this project was to evaluate and identify the presence of Arcobacter in chicken viscera sold in the metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica, as well as to determine the antimicrobial resistance patterns associated with it. One hundred fifty samples of chicken viscera including heart, liver, and other gastrointestinal organs were purchased from 15 supermarkets and 15 local retailers. De Boer and Houf broths were used as enrichment media; isolation was done with Arcobacter-selective medium and with membrane filtration with blood agar. Typical colonies were identified with genus-specific PCR, and species identification was made with multiplex PCR. Susceptibility to ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, gentamicin, and tetracycline was done with the Epsilometer test. The isolation frequency of Arcobacter genus obtained in this study was of 17.3%. A total of 33 isolates were obtained from the poultry samples, and according to the multiplex PCR methodology, 22 (66.7%) isolates were identified as Arcobacter butzleri, 8 (24.2%) as Arcobacter cryaerophilus, and 1 (3.1%) as Arcobacter skirrowii. Two strains were not identified. No statistical significant difference was found when the source of samples was compared. Resistance toward chloramphenicol was 68.75%, followed by ampicillin (43.75%) and ciprofloxacin (18.75%); all strains were susceptible to tetracycline.

In recent years, emerging pathogens have received special attention due to their consequences for public health. Given that Arcobacter has been isolated in Costa Rica from commercial meat poultry samples, the aim of this research was to determine its isolation frequency from laying hens, broilers, ducks, and geese and to compare two types of samples, namely, cloacal swabs and stool collection. Arcobacter was isolated from 22 (11%) of the 200 samples examined. Fifteen (55%), eight (30%), and four (15%) of the isolated strains were identified as A. butzleri, A. cryareophilus, and Arcobacter spp., respectively. Also, there is a statistically significant difference among the isolation frequencies of Arcobacter for the types of samples evaluated, yielding more isolates from stool samples than from cloacal swab collection. This work describes the distribution of Arcobacter in farm animals as potential sources for its spread from animal-derived products.

Resumen: Los hallazgos más recientes en cuanto a la trasmisión del Toxoplasma gondii en Costa Rica nos indican que la ingestión de carne poco cocida, así como de algunos embutidos, en donde se ha encontrado el parásito en forma viable, son mecanismos de infección importante. Estos aspectos han hecho variar un poco la concepción anterior de que la ingestión de ooquistes del parásito era la principal, sino la única, vía de infección en nuestro país. Por ello se propone un nuevo ciclo de trasmisión para este parásito, comparándolo con el previamente establecido. Este nuevo patrón epidemiológico establece mayores posibilidades de infección con este parásito para los costarricenses.

Introduction: Wildlife hematological patterns are fundamental for health monitoring, and allows elucidating variations both within and between populations. Among these, hematological parameters are particularly valuable to evaluate the health status of neotropical primate species in the wild. Objective: To define hematological reference values for two species of monkeys in Costa Rica. Methods: During 2014, we collected blood samples from free-ranging mantled howler monkeys, Alouatta palliata (17 females, 18 males) and white-faced capuchin monkeys, Cebus imitator (5 females, 7 males) in seven localities of the Costa Rican Pacific coast. Results: For both species, the hematological values were higher in males, and howler monkey populations differed significantly except for platelets. Conclusions: These hematological values, which differ by sex and locality, will help evaluate the health status of these neotropical primate populations.

Microbiological quality of raw material and final product of tilapia and shrimp ceviche expended in the Metropolitan Area of San José, Costa Rica. Ceviche is a common use dish from Latin American countries, made up of raw fish or seafood marinated with lemon or lime juice, and several seasoning ingredients. It includes the normal flora coming from raw product and flora acquired from handling and additional ingredients. The product is consumed raw, representing a risk for Public Health. The aim of this work was to determine the microbiological quality of tilapia fish ceviche and shrimp ceviche sold at the Metropolitan Area of San José, Costa Rica, as well as the raw material used in its elaboration. A total of 25 samples of tilapia ceviche and 27 samples of shrimp ceviche were analyzed; the same number of raw material was analyzed. The behavior of some of the spoilage populations was analyzed in 25 samples of shrimp and same number of tilapia ceviche during its storage at 4ºC. Even though the ceviche includes manipulation plus an important bacterial contamination in raw material, there is an important reduction in the bacterial charge of the final product, especially referring to total aerobic psychrofilic plate count and total coliforms; but not to fecal coliforms. Escherichia coli was isolated from 15% of the tilapia's ceviche and 4% from shrimp's ceviche, 3 strains of Listeria monocytogenes were isolated from tilapia, one from shrimp, 3 strains of V. parahaermolyticus were isolated from shrimp and 2 from its ceviche. Salmonella spp. was not isolated. The pH of ceviche plates stored at 4ºC for one week showed a trend towards stability or a slight increase of this parameter. The concentration of spoilage microorganisms suffered slight variations, nevertheless, the low number of Pseudomonas spp. present in tilapia's ceviche is an outstanding result considering that this population is associated to spoilage of the product. KEY WORDSCeviche, tilapia, shrimp, spoilage. RESUMENEl ceviche es un platillo formulado a base de pescado de agua salada o dulce, o mariscos frescos y diversos aliños. Su elaboración acarrea no solo la flora normal y adquirida de la materia prima a utilizar, sino que también la flora que se agregue durante su procesamiento y a partir de ingredientes adicionales. Además, es un producto que se consume marinado, representando un riego para la salud pública. El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar la calidad microbiológica del ceviche de tilapia y del ceviche de camarón que se vende en el Área Metropolitana de San José, Costa Rica, así como de la materia prima utilizada en su respectiva elaboración. Para tal efecto, se analizaron 25 muestras de ceviche de tilapia y 27 de camarón, analizando igual número de muestras de materia prima. De la misma manera, se analizó el comportamiento de las poblaciones de algunos microorganismos de deterioro a partir de 25 muestras de ceviche de camarón y 25 muestras de ceviche de tilapia durante su almacenaje a 4ºC. A pesar de la contaminación bacteriológic...

Comparisson of methods for the analysis of total and fecal coliforms in water samples using the Most Probable Number technique.The basic microbiological analysis of water includes the determination of total and fecal coliforms. The presence or abscense of fecal coliforms in water defines its potability. The main objective of this work was to design and execute a comparison scheme of two techniques for the determination of coliforms in water, applying modifications to the reference technique of the Most Probable Number , derived from the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. The modifications included the type of media used for the presumptive phase and the use of an air incubator instead of a water bath for the confirmatory phase. At the same time, the effect of using calibrated automatic pipettes and calibrated glass pipettes was also compared. Artificial water samples, elaborated with standard laboratory material and inoculated with Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and environmental samples, were used. The alternative methodology shows a superior performance only when inoculation is low. There was no difference between the two volumetric systems. KEY WORDSTotal coliforms, fecal coliforms, water, Most Probable Number. RESUMENEl análisis microbiológico básico del agua comprende la determinación de coliformes totales y fecales. La ausencia o presencia de los coliformes fecales en el agua define su potabilidad. El objetivo del presente estudio consistió en el diseño y ejecución de un esquema de comparación de dos técnicas para la determinación de coliformes en aguas, a partir de modificaciones aplicadas sobre la técnica de referencia de Número Más Probable (NMP) derivada del Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. Específicamente, las modificaciones incluyeron el tipo de medio utilizado en la fase presuntiva de la técnica y el uso de incubadora de aire, alternativo al baño de maría en la fase confirmatoria. Simultáneamente, se comparó el efecto del uso de equipo volumétrico tipo micropipeta automática calibrada o pipetas de vidrio estériles calibradas. Para tal efecto, se utilizaron muestras de agua artificiales, elaboradas con material del laboratorio e inoculadas con una cepa de Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 así como muestras ambientales. La metodología alternativa tiene un rendimiento superior solamente cuando el nivel de inóculo en las muestras es bajo. No se determinó ninguna diferencia estadísticamente significativa entre los dos sistemas de medición volumétrica. PALABRAS CLAVEcoliformes totales, coliformes fecales, agua, Número Más Probable.El análisis microbiológico básico del agua comprende la determinación de coliformes totales y fecales. Esta determinación es importante porque brinda información valiosa en el estudio de cambios que se puedan presentar en las poblaciones microbianas presentes en las fuentes de agua (Abbaszadegan 2006). De la misma manera, la ausencia o presencia de los coliformes fecales en el agua define su potabilidad, al ser organismos i...