An internal locus of control contributes to positive youth outcomes such as a general well-being and academic success, while also serving as a protective factor against exposure to community violence and reducing negative behaviors like violence. Despite these benefits, very little is known about antecedents of an internal locus of control orientation. Without an understanding of what factors contribute to the development of an internal locus of control, it is not clear how to best encourage its formation. This study uses data from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods to examine whether various mesosystem variables (family management strategies, peer interactions, neighborhood context, and individual-level characteristics) are associated with an internal locus of control orientation among 1,076 youth ages 9-19 living in 78 Chicago neighborhoods. Study participants were Hispanic (46 %), African American (34 %), and White (15 %), and 50 % were female. The findings suggest that, while most levels of the mesosystem influence locus of control orientation, family management strategies are more prominent determinants of an internal locus of control than peers, neighborhood context, or individual characteristics. Parental supervision over the time a youth spends at home and family socioeconomic status are consistent predictors of an internal locus of control, while harsh discipline is associated with an external locus of control. The discussion examines the import of various parenting techniques in shaping an internal locus of control and considers future avenues for research to further unpack how antecedents of locus of control can vary across youth.

Using hierarchical generalized linear modeling and the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods data, the authors examine whether different types of guardianship protect youth against exposure to violence in the neighborhood while controlling for situations where exposure is most likely to occur. Protective family management practices and internal locus of control significantly reduce exposure to community violence. Contrary to expectations, however, neighborhood collective efficacy exerted no effect. The findings emphasize the importance of considering family management practices and individual characteristics as protective factors against harmful environments. Further, guardianship is not restricted to external informal agents of control.

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Experiences with neighborhood violence can produce negative consequences in youth, including stress, anxiety, and deviant behavior. Studies report that immigrant and minority youth are more likely to be exposed to violence but less likely to perpetrate it. Similarly, research shows parenting practices are differentially adopted by Blacks, Whites, and Hispanics. Although family management strategies can often act as a barrier to the detrimental effects of exposure to community violence (ETV-C), there is a paucity of investigation on how Hispanic subgroups (e.g., Puerto Rican, Mexican) and immigrant families employ such practices in protecting their children against victimization and violence in the community. Applying an ecological framework, we use data from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods to examine the role of parenting and peer relationships on youth ETV-C, across race/ethnicity and immigrant generational status. Our sample is drawn from Cohorts 9, 12, and 15, and is over 40% Hispanic-Latino. We investigate the differences in within and outside the home family management strategies in terms of both race/ethnicity and immigrant generational status. Our work also seeks to determine the effects of race/ethnicity and immigrant status on youth ETV-C, while examining the influence of family management and peer relations. Results indicate that the adoption of family management practices is not homogeneous across Hispanic subgroups or immigrant generational status, and parenting practices seem to mediate the relationship between these characteristics and exposure to violence. Variations in parenting practices underscore the need to disentangle the cultural plurality of racial/ethnic grouping and how immigrant generational status influences parenting choices that protect children from exposure to violence in the community.

The family and community are both key components of child socialization and they influence developmental pathways. In this study, four family management strategies (supervision, discipline, restrictiveness, and familiarity with child's peers) and potential neighborhood effects on parenting behaviors are examined. Three proximal mechanisms (exposure to violence, peer deviance, and locus of control) are also examined as mediators. Data on three cohorts of youths ages 9 to 19 from the PHDCN are analyzed using HLM. Harsh disciplining practices increase violence by 33%, while reductions in unsupervised time in the community decrease violent behavior by 40%. The proximal mechanisms mediate the impact of family management strategies on youth involvement in violence. Results also show that family management factors are more influential over youth violence than neighborhood context. Research incorporating particular family management strategies can provide a more comprehensive investigation to research on the importance of family socialization.