Human rabies transmitted by dogs is considered a neglected disease that can be eliminated in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) by 2015. The aim of this paper is to discuss canine rabies policies and projections for LAC regarding current strategies for achieving this target and to critically review the political, economic and geographical factors related to the successful elimination of this deadly disease in the context of the difficulties and challenges of the region. The strong political and technical commitment to control rabies in LAC in the 1980s, started with the regional programme coordinated by the Pan American Health Organization. National and subnational programmes involve a range of strategies including mass canine vaccination with more than 51 million doses of canine vaccine produced annually, pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis, improvements in disease diagnosis and intensive surveillance. Rabies incidence in LAC has dramatically declined over the last few decades, with laboratory confirmed dog rabies cases decreasing from approximately 25 000 in 1980 to less than 300 in 2010. Dog-transmitted human rabies cases also decreased from 350 to less than 10 during the same period. Several countries have been declared free of human cases of dog-transmitted rabies, and from the 35 countries in the Americas, there is now only notification of human rabies transmitted by dogs in seven countries (Bolivia, Peru, Honduras, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Guatemala and some states in north and northeast Brazil). Here, we emphasize the importance of the political commitment in the final progression towards disease elimination. The availability of strategies for rabies control, the experience of most countries in the region and the historical ties of solidarity between countries with the support of the scientific community are evidence to affirm that the elimination of dog-transmitted rabies can be achieved in the short term. The final efforts to confront the remaining obstacles, like achieving and sustaining high vaccination coverage in communities that are most impoverished or in remote locations, are faced by countries that struggle to allocate sufficient financial and human resources for rabies control. Continent-wide cooperation is therefore required in the final efforts to secure the free status of remaining countries in the Americas, which is key to the regional elimination of human rabies transmitted by dogs.

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Human rabies transmitted by vampire bats reached new heights in Latin America in 2005. A total of 55 human cases were reported in several outbreaks, 41 of them in the Amazon region of Brazil. Peru and Brazil had the highest number of reported cases from 1975 to 2006. In Peru, outbreaks involving more than 20 cases of bat-transmitted human rabies were reported during the 1980s and 1990s. During this period, a smaller number of cases were reported from outbreaks in Brazil. A comparison of data from field studies conducted in Brazil in 2005 with those from the previous decade suggests similar bat-bite situations at the local level. The objective of this study was to review the epidemiological situation and, on the basis of this information, discuss possible factors associated with the outbreaks. Prevention and control measures already recommended for dealing with this problem are also reviewed, and some further suggestions are provided.

In 1983, the countries of the Americas, with support from the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), pledged to eliminate human rabies transmitted by dogs 1 . The goal established was initially limited to the main cities and later extended to the entire Region, setting 2005 as the target date.Since then, through the Regional Program for the Elimination of Human Rabies Transmitted by Dogs, the countries have made great efforts to reach the goal, with remarkable success 2,3,4,5 . In the last 20 years, the number of cases of human and canine rabies in the Region has dropped by nearly 90% 6 .Eliminating human and canine rabies in the member states is a technical cooperation priority and key mandate for PAHO. To help analyze the extent to which the goal was reached, PAHO conducted a study entitled Elimination of Human Rabies Transmitted by Dogs in Latin America 7 to evaluate the rabies situation in the Region, resulting in this publication and a summary published in the PAHO Epidemiological Bulletin 8 . MethodologyPAHO developed standard methods 9 and sent each participating country an interactive CD-ROM with the study methodology and a bibliography pertaining to the subject area. Countries also received a diskette with an Excel spreadsheet

BackgroundIn the Americas, yellow fever virus transmission is a latent threat due to the proximity between urban and wild environments. Although yellow fever has nearly vanished from North and Central America, there are still 13 countries in the Americas considered endemic by the World Health Organization. Human cases usually occur as a result of the exposure to sylvatic yellow fever in tropical forested environments; but urban outbreaks reported during the last decade demonstrate that the risk in this environment still exists. The objective of this study was to identify spatial patterns and the relationship between key geographic and environmental factors with the distribution of yellow fever human cases in the Americas.Methodology/Principal findingsAn ecological study was carried out to analyze yellow fever human cases reported to the Pan American Health Organization from 2000 to 2014, aggregated by second administrative level subdivisions (counties). Presence of yellow fever by county was used as the outcome variable and eight geo-environmental factors were used as independent variables. Spatial analysis was performed to identify and examine natural settings per county. Subsequently, a multivariable logistic regression model was built. During the study period, 1,164 cases were reported in eight out of the 13 endemic countries. Nearly 83.8% of these cases were concentrated in three countries: Peru (37.4%), Brazil (28.1%) and Colombia (18.4%); and distributed in 57 states/provinces, specifically in 286 counties (3.4% of total counties). Yellow fever presence was significantly associated with altitude, rain, diversity of non-human primate hosts and temperature. A positive spatial autocorrelation revealed a clustered geographic pattern in 138/286 yellow fever positive counties (48.3%).Conclusions/SignificanceA clustered geographic pattern of yellow fever was identified mostly along the Andes eastern foothills. This risk map could support health policies in endemic countries. Geo-environmental factors associated with presence of yellow fever could help predict and adjust the limits of other risk areas of epidemiological concern.

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ResumoDescreve-se a situação epidemiológica da raiva no Brasil no período de 1980-1990, em que o Programa Nacional de Profilaxia da Raiva foi estruturado em todo País. São mostradas as principais ações de controle da raiva desenvolvidas para se chegar aos resultados, considerados positivos. A raiva no Brasil registrou uma redução importante nos casos humanos (78%) e caninos (90%) na metade da série analisada. No final da década, houve um recrudescimento de casos em algumas partes do País, principalmente na região Nordeste que apresentou 70% dos casos em 1990. A raiva humana transmitida por morcegos também apresentou um incremento importante, chegando a 15,1% do total. O programa executado pelos Estados e municípios atende a 350.000 pessoas agredidas por animais e também vacina cerca de 9.000.000 de animais anualmente. A vigilância epidemiológica é considerada fundamental e para isso se elaboraram indicadores para a definição de áreas de risco. Raiva

Measuring health inequalities is indispensable for progress in improving the health situation in the Region of the Americas, where the analysis of average values is no longer sufficient. Analyzing health inequalities is a fundamental tool for action that seeks greater equity in health. There are various measurement methods, with differing levels of complexity, and choosing one rather than another depends on the objective of the study. The purpose of this article is to familiarize health professionals and decision-making institutions with methodological aspects of the measurement and simple analysis of health inequalities, utilizing basic data that are regularly reported by geopolitical unit. The calculation method and the advantages and disadvantages of the following indicators are presented: the rate ratio and the rate difference, the effect index, the population attributable risk, the index of dissimilarity, the slope index of inequality and the relative index of inequality, the Gini coefficient, and the concentration index. The methods presented are applicable to measuring various types of inequalities and at different levels of analysis.