To understand the neural origins of rhythmic behavior one must characterize the central pattern generator circuit and quantify the population size needed to sustain functionality. Breathing-related interneurons of the brainstem pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC) that putatively comprise the core respiratory rhythm generator in mammals are derived from Dbx1-expressing precursors. Here, we show that selective photonic destruction of Dbx1 preBötC neurons in neonatal mouse slices impairs respiratory rhythm but surprisingly also the magnitude of motor output; respiratory hypoglossal nerve discharge decreased and its frequency steadily diminished until rhythm stopped irreversibly after 85±20 (mean ± SEM) cellular ablations, which corresponds to ∼15% of the estimated population. These results demonstrate that a single canonical interneuron class generates respiratory rhythm and contributes in a premotor capacity, whereas these functions are normally attributed to discrete populations. We also establish quantitative cellular parameters that govern network viability, which may have ramifications for respiratory pathology in disease states.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03427.001

Key points• The transcription factor Dbx1 gives rise to putatively respiratory rhythm-generating neurons in the pre-Bötzinger complex. Comparative analysis of Dbx1-derived (Dbx1 + ) and non-Dbx1-derived (Dbx1 − ) neurons can help elucidate the cellular bases of respiratory rhythm generation. • In vitro, Dbx1+ neurons activate earlier in the respiratory cycle, discharge larger magnitude inspiratory bursts and exhibit a lower rheobase compared with Dbx1 − neurons.+ neurons tend to express the intrinsic currents I A (transient outward A-current) and I h (hyperpolarization-activated current) in diametric opposition, which may facilitate temporal summation of excitatory synaptic inputs, whereas the Dbx1 − neurons show no significant pattern of expression regarding I A and I h .• The Dbx1 + neurons exhibit smooth, spineless dendrites that project in the transverse plane, whereas the Dbx1 − neurons are confined to the transverse plane to a lesser extent and sometimes exhibit spines.• The properties of Dbx1 + neurons that may contribute to respiratory rhythmogenesis include a high level of excitability linked to ongoing network activity and dendritic properties that may facilitate synaptic integration.Abstract Breathing in mammals depends on an inspiratory-related rhythm that is generated by glutamatergic neurons in the pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC) of the lower brainstem. A substantial subset of putative rhythm-generating preBötC neurons derive from a single genetic line that expresses the transcription factor Dbx1, but the cellular mechanisms of rhythmogenesis remain incompletely understood. To elucidate these mechanisms, we carried out a comparative analysis of Dbx1-expressing neurons (Dbx1 + ) and non-Dbx1-derived (Dbx1 − ) neurons in the preBötC. Whole-cell recordings in rhythmically active newborn mouse slice preparations showed that Dbx1 + neurons activate earlier in the respiratory cycle and discharge greater magnitude inspiratory bursts compared with Dbx1 − neurons. Furthermore, Dbx1 + neurons required less input current to discharge spikes (rheobase) in the context of network activity. The expression of intrinsic membrane properties indicative of A-current (I A ) and hyperpolarization-activated current (I h ) tended to be mutually exclusive in Dbx1 + neurons. In contrast, there was no such relationship in the expression of currents I A and I h in Dbx1 − neurons. Confocal imaging and digital morphological reconstruction of recorded neurons revealed dendritic spines on Dbx1 in part, to a higher level of intrinsic excitability in the context of network synaptic activity. Furthermore, Dbx1 + neuronal morphology may facilitate temporal summation and integration of local synaptic inputs from other Dbx1 + neurons, taking place largely in the dendrites, which could be important for initiating and maintaining bursts and synchronizing activity during the inspiratory phase.

The preBötzinger complex (preBötC) generates the rhythm and rudimentary motor pattern for inspiratory breathing movements. Here, we test "burstlet" theory (Kam et al., 2013a), which posits that low amplitude burstlets, subthreshold from the standpoint of inspiratory bursts, reflect the fundamental oscillator of the preBötC. In turn, a discrete suprathreshold process transforms burstlets into full amplitude inspiratory bursts that drive motor output, measurable via hypoglossal nerve (XII) discharge in vitro. We recap observations by Kam and Feldman in neonatal mouse slice preparations: field recordings from preBötC demonstrate bursts and concurrent XII motor output intermingled with lower amplitude burstlets that do not produce XII motor output. Manipulations of excitability affect the relative prevalence of bursts and burstlets and modulate their frequency. Whole-cell and photonic recordings of preBötC neurons suggest that burstlets involve inconstant subsets of rhythmogenic interneurons. We conclude that discrete rhythm-and pattern-generating mechanisms coexist in the preBötC and that burstlets reflect its fundamental rhythmogenic nature.

Inspiratory breathing movements depend on pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC) interneurons that express calcium (Ca 2+ )-activated nonselective cationic current ( I CAN ) to generate robust neural bursts. Hypothesized to be rhythmogenic, reducing I CAN is predicted to slow down or stop breathing; its contributions to motor pattern would be reflected in the magnitude of movements (output). We tested the role(s) of I CAN using reverse genetic techniques to diminish its putative ion channels Trpm4 or Trpc3 in preBötC neurons in vivo. Adult mice transduced with Trpm4-targeted short hairpin RNA (shRNA) progressively decreased the tidal volume of breaths yet surprisingly increased breathing frequency, often followed by gasping and fatal respiratory failure. Mice transduced with Trpc3-targeted shRNA survived with no changes in breathing. Patch-clamp and field recordings from the preBötC in mouse slices also showed an increase in the frequency and a decrease in the magnitude of preBötC neural bursts in the presence of Trpm4 antagonist 9-phenanthrol, whereas the Trpc3 antagonist pyrazole-3 (pyr-3) showed inconsistent effects on magnitude and no effect on frequency. These data suggest that Trpm4 mediates I CAN , whose influence on frequency contradicts a direct role in rhythm generation. We conclude that Trpm4-mediated I CAN is indispensable for motor output but not the rhythmogenic core mechanism of the breathing central pattern generator.

We sequenced the transcriptome of brainstem interneurons in the specialized respiratory rhythmogenic site dubbed preBötzinger Complex (preBötC) from newborn mice. To distinguish molecular characteristics of the core oscillator we compared preBötC neurons derived from Dbx1-expressing progenitors that are respiratory rhythmogenic to neighbouring non-Dbx1-derived neurons, which support other respiratory and non-respiratory functions. Results in three categories are particularly salient. First, Dbx1 preBötC neurons express κ-opioid receptors in addition to μ-opioid receptors that heretofore have been associated with opiate respiratory depression, which may have clinical applications. Second, Dbx1 preBötC neurons express the hypoxia-inducible transcription factor Hif1a at levels three-times higher than non-Dbx1 neurons, which links core rhythmogenic microcircuits to O2-related chemosensation for the first time. Third, we detected a suite of transcription factors including Hoxa4 whose expression pattern may define the rostral preBötC border, Pbx3 that may influence ipsilateral connectivity, and Pax8 that may pertain to a ventrally-derived subset of Dbx1 preBötC neurons. These data establish the transcriptomic signature of the core respiratory oscillator at a perinatal stage of development.

All motor behaviors require precise temporal coordination of different muscle groups. Breathing, for example, involves the sequential activation of numerous muscles hypothesized to be driven by a primary respiratory oscillator, the preBötzinger Complex, and at least one other as-yet unidentified rhythmogenic population. We tested the roles of Atoh1-, Phox2b-, and Dbx1-derived neurons (three groups that have known roles in respiration) in the generation and coordination of respiratory output. We found that Dbx1-derived neurons are necessary for all respiratory behaviors, whereas independent but coupled respiratory rhythms persist from at least three different motor pools after eliminating or silencing Phox2b- or Atoh1-expressing hindbrain neurons. Without Atoh1 neurons, however, the motor pools become temporally disorganized and coupling between independent respiratory oscillators decreases. We propose Atoh1 neurons tune the sequential activation of independent oscillators essential for the fine control of different muscles during breathing.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.02265.001

Key points• We developed an automated system that detects neurons belonging to specific populations in vitro or in situ, maps their physical locations in three-dimensional tissue specimens and then laser ablates the cell 'targets' one at a time, in sequence, while monitoring neural population activity electrophysiologically.• Two-photon Ca 2+ imaging and image processing routines detect and validate target neurons based on rhythmic Ca 2+ fluorescence activity patterns.• Visible-wavelength confocal imaging and image processing routines detect and validate target neurons that express genetically encoded fluorescent proteins.• High-intensity two-photon spot scanning vaporizes target neurons with specificity while minimizing damage to neighbouring tissue.• Physiological monitoring of network function is performed before, during and after the cell-specific laser ablations to measure the effects on network functionality in real time.Abstract A key feature of neurodegenerative disease is the pathological loss of neurons that participate in generating behaviour. To investigate network properties of neural circuits and provide a complementary tool to study neurodegeneration in vitro or in situ, we developed an automated cell-specific laser detection and ablation system. The instrument consists of a two-photon and visible-wavelength confocal imaging setup, controlled by executive software, that identifies neurons in preparations based on genetically encoded fluorescent proteins or Ca 2+ imaging, and then sequentially ablates cell targets while monitoring network function concurrently. Pathological changes in network function can be directly attributed to ablated cells, which are logged in real time. Here, we investigated brainstem respiratory circuits to demonstrate single-cell precision in ablation during physiological network activity, but the technique could be applied to interrogate network properties in neural systems that retain network functionality in reduced preparations in vitro or in situ.

Breathing depends on interneurons in the preBötzinger complex (preBötC) derived from Dbx1-expressing precursors. Here we investigate whether rhythm- and pattern-generating functions reside in discrete classes of Dbx1 preBötC neurons. In a slice model of breathing with ~ 5 s cycle period, putatively rhythmogenic Type-1 Dbx1 preBötC neurons activate 100–300 ms prior to Type-2 neurons, putatively specialized for output pattern, and 300–500 ms prior to the inspiratory motor output. We sequenced Type-1 and Type-2 transcriptomes and identified differential expression of 123 genes including ionotropic receptors (Gria3, Gabra1) that may explain their preinspiratory activation profiles and Ca2+ signaling (Cracr2a, Sgk1) involved in inspiratory and sigh bursts. Surprisingly, neuropeptide receptors that influence breathing (e.g., µ-opioid and bombesin-like peptide receptors) were only sparsely expressed, which suggests that cognate peptides and opioid drugs exert their profound effects on a small fraction of the preBötC core. These data in the public domain help explain the neural origins of breathing.