The dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that is critical for many central nervous system functions. The D2R carries out these functions by signaling through two transducers: G proteins and b-arrestins (barrs). Selectively engaging either the G protein or barr pathway may be a way to improve drugs targeting GPCRs. The current model of GPCR signal transduction posits a chain of events where G protein activation ultimately leads to barr recruitment. GPCR kinases (GRKs), which are regulated by G proteins and whose kinase action facilitates barr recruitment, bridge these pathways. Therefore barr recruitment appears to be intimately tied to G protein activation via GRKs. Here, we sought to understand how GRK2 action at the D2R would be disrupted when G protein activation is eliminated and the effect of this on barr recruitment. We used two recently developed biased D2R mutants that can preferentially interact either with G proteins or barrs as well as a barr-biased D2R ligand, UNC9994. With these functionally selective tools, we investigated the mechanism whereby the barr-preferring D2R achieves barr pathway activation in the complete absence of G protein activation. We describe how direct, G protein-independent recruitment of GRK2 drives interactions at the barr-preferring D2R and also contributes to barr recruitment at the WT D2R. Additionally, we found an additive interaction between the barr-preferring D2R mutant and UNC9994. These results reveal that the D2R can directly recruit GRK2 without G protein activation and that this mechanism may have relevance to achieving barr-biased signaling.

Little is known regarding T cell translational regulation. We demonstrate that T follicular helper (TFH) cells use a previously unknown mechanism of selective messenger RNA (mRNA) translation for their differentiation, role in B cell maturation, and in autoimmune pathogenesis. We show that TFH cells have much higher levels of translation factor eIF4E than non-TFH CD4 + T cells, which is essential for translation of TFH cell fate-specification mRNAs. Genome-wide translation studies indicate that modest down-regulation of eIF4E activity by a small-molecule inhibitor or short hairpin RN impairs TFH cell development and function. In mice, down-regulation of eIF4E activity specifically reduces TFH cells among T helper subtypes, germinal centers, B cell recruitment, and antibody production. In experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, eIF4E activity down-regulation blocks TFH cell participation in disease pathogenesis while promoting rapid remission and spinal cord remyelination. TFH cell development and its role in autoimmune pathogenesis involve selective mRNA translation that is highly druggable.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neuroinflammatory disorder resulting from infiltration of T cells into the central nervous system (CNS) and demyelination of neurons. Since T follicular helper (TFH) cells are associated with MS relapse, their selective inhibition could be an ideal therapeutic. TFH cells require transcription factor BCL6 and active mTORC1/2 for development. When mTORC is active, cap-binding protein eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) initiates translation of selective mRNAs. However, the requirement of eIF4E for translation of mRNAs necessary for TFH cell development has not been investigated. Disruption of eIF4E binding to the 5′ mRNA cap with drug 4EGI-1 inhibits TFH and germinal center (GC) B cell development while having no effect on differentiation and effector function of TH1, TH2, TH17, or Tregs. Silencing of eIF4E in only CD4 T cells is sufficient to inhibit their formation of TFH cells. We used polysome profiling to determine which mRNAs are selectively translated by eIF4E and identified salient programs regulated by transcription (BCL6, NFAT) and costimulation (CD28, SLAM). eIF4E is required for translation of BCL6 in human lymph node TFH and GC B cells. Administration of 4EGI-1 during experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) results in significantly decreased infiltration of CD4 T cells in the CNS, demyelination, and clinical score. Further, 4EGI-1 treatment following initiation of symptoms results in rapid improvement of symptoms and partial remission earlier than vehicle-treated animals. Thus, eIF4E is required for differentiation of TFH cells and pathogenesis of autoimmune encephalitis, and 4EGI-1 represents a potential therapeutic.