The psychoactive cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. and the arachidonic acid-derived endocannabinoids are nonselective natural ligands for cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) and CB2 receptors. Although the CB1 receptor is responsible for the psychomodulatory effects, activation of the CB2 receptor is a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of inflammation, pain, atherosclerosis, and osteoporosis. Here, we report that the widespread plant volatile (E) Cannabis ͉ CB2 cannabinoid receptor ͉ foodstuff ͉ inflammation ͉ natural product P lant essential oils are typically composed of volatile aromatic terpenes and phenylpropanoids. These lipophilic volatiles freely cross cellular membranes and serve various ecological roles, like plant-insect interactions (1, 2). The sesquiterpene (E)-␤-caryophyllene [(E)-BCP] (Fig. 1) is a major plant volatile found in large amounts in the essential oils of many different spice and food plants, such as oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) and black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) (3-5). In nature, (E)-BCP is usually found together with small quantities of its isomers (Z)-␤-caryophyllene [(Z)-BCP or isocaryophyllene] and ␣-humulene (formerly ␣-caryophyllene) or in a mixture with its oxidation product, BCP oxide (Fig. 1). Because of its weak aromatic taste, (E)-BCP is commercially used as a food additive and in cosmetics (6). (E)-BCP is also a major component (up to 35%) in the essential oil of Cannabis sativa L (7). Although Cannabis contains Ͼ400 different secondary metabolites, including Ͼ65 cannabinoid-like natural products, only ⌬ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), ⌬ 8 -tetrahydrocannabinol, and cannabinol have been reported to activate cannabinoid receptor types 1 (CB 1 ) and 2 (CB 2 ) (8). Here, we show that the essential oil component (E)-BCP selectively binds to the CP55,940 binding site (i.e., THC binding site) in the CB 2 receptor, leading to cellular activation and antiinflammatory effects. CB 1 and CB 2 cannabinoid receptors are GTP-binding protein (G protein) coupled receptors that were first cloned in the early 1990s (9, 10). Although the CB 1 receptor is expressed in the central nervous system and in the periphery, the CB 2 receptor is primarily found in peripheral tissues (11). In vivo, CB receptors are activated by arachidonic acid-derived endocannabinoids, such as 2-arachidonoyl ethanolamine (anandamide or AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) (12, 13). In addition to a wide range of primarily CB 1 receptor-mediated physiological effects on the central nervous system, different cannabinoid ligands have been reported to modulate immune responses (14). In particular, CB 2 receptor ligands have been shown to inhibit inflammation and edema formation (15), exhibit analgesic effects (16), and play a protective role in hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (17). In the gastrointestinal tract, CB 2 receptor agonists have been shown to prevent experimental colitis by reducing inflammation (18). Moreover, the CB 2 receptor has been described as a potential ...

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The ethnopharmacological approach toward the understanding and appraisal of traditional and herbal medicines is characterized by the inclusions of the social as well as the natural sciences. Anthropological field-observations describing the local use of nature-derived medicines are the basis for ethnopharmacological enquiries. The multidisciplinary scientific validation of indigenous drugs is of relevance to modern societies at large and helps to sustain local health care practices. Especially with respect to therapies related to aging related, chronic and infectious diseases traditional medicines offer promising alternatives to biomedicine. Bioassays applied in ethnopharmacology represent the molecular characteristics and complexities of the disease or symptoms for which an indigenous drug is used in “traditional” medicine to variable depth and extent. One-dimensional in vitro approaches rarely cope with the complexity of human diseases and ignore the concept of polypharmacological synergies. The recent focus on holistic approaches and systems biology in medicinal plant research represents the trend toward the description and the understanding of complex multi-parameter systems. Ethnopharmacopoeias are non-static cultural constructs shaped by belief and knowledge systems. Intensified globalization and economic liberalism currently accelerates the interchange between local and global pharmacopoeias via international trade, television, the World Wide Web and print media. The increased infiltration of newly generated biomedical knowledge and introduction of “foreign” medicines into local pharmacopoeias leads to syncretic developments and generates a feedback loop. While modern and post-modern cultures and knowledge systems adapt and transform the global impact, they become more relevant for ethnopharmacology. Moreover, what is traditional, alternative or complementary medicine depends on the adopted historic-cultural perspective.

Results: We identified a core group of 170 medicinal species used on either islands, which accumulate 74% of all citations and are best represented in De Materia Medica. The 15 most frequently used species of both islands demonstrate intriguing parallels for indications with Dioscorides' work. Conclusion:The ethnopharmacopoeia of Sicily and Sardinia are shallow stereotypes of the different editions of De Materia Medica and talking of oral tradition in this respect is a contradiction. The medicinal species of Sardinia and Sicily are largely widespread and common species, including many weeds, which are not facing threat of extinction. Therefore, using traditional medicinal practices as an argument for conservation biology or vice versa is not scientifically sound.

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We studied the medicinal plants used by the Popoluca of the Sierra de Santa Marta (eastern Mexico). Using Moerman's method of regression analysis we determined which ethnomedically used taxa are over-represented in the Popolucan pharmacopoeia (e.g., Asteraceae) and which are underrepresented (e.g., Orchidaceae). Moerman et al. (1999)found high correlation between the holarctic pharmacopoeias and assumed that apart from the relatedness of the northern floras a "'global pattern of human knowledge" may account for this finding. Although the Popoluca dwell in a habitat dominated by a neotropical flora but intermixed with important holarctic elements, they include considerably fewer neotropical taxa in their pharmacopoeia as one would expect if the historical transmitted knowledge were influencing their selection. This finding confirms the theory stated by Moerman et al. However, the Popoluca include some neotropical taxa in their pharmacopoeia and thus a moderate correlation exists between the Popolucan pharmacopoeia and the neotropical pharmacopoeia analysed by Moerman et al. We therefore conclude that apart from historically transmitted knowledge about specific taxa the "global pattern of human knowledge" addressed by Moerman et al. is largely based on "'common selection criteria."