Cellular apoptosis induced by hyperglycemia occurs in many vascular cells and is critical to initiate diabetic pathologies. In the retina, pericyte apoptosis, the most specific vascular pathology attributed to hyperglycemia, is linked to the loss of PDGF actions due to unknown mechanisms. Our study demonstrated that hyperglycemia persistently activated PKCδ and p38α MAPK to increase the expression of a novel target, SHP-1, leading to PDGF receptor-β dephosphorylation and actions, and increased pericyte apoptosis, independent of NF-κB. These findings were also observed in diabetic mouse retinas, which were not reversed by achieving normoglycemia with insulin. Unlike diabetic controls, diabetic Prkcd−/− mice did not exhibit p38α MAPK/SHP-1 activation, PDGF resistance or acellular capillaries. Since PKCδ/p38α MAPK/SHP-1 activation are also induced in the brain pericytes and renal cortex by diabetes, these findings have elucidated a new pathway by which hyperglycemia can induce PDGF resistance and increase vascular cell apoptosis to cause diabetic vascular complications.

To characterize glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 signaling and its effect on renal endothelial dysfunction and glomerulopathy. We studied the expression and signaling of GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) on glomerular endothelial cells and the novel finding of protein kinase A–dependent phosphorylation of c-Raf at Ser259 and its inhibition of angiotensin II (Ang II) phospho–c-Raf(Ser338) and Erk1/2 phosphorylation. Mice overexpressing protein kinase C (PKC)β2 in endothelial cells (EC-PKCβ2Tg) were established. Ang II and GLP-1 actions in glomerular endothelial cells were analyzed with small interfering RNA of GLP-1R. PKCβ isoform activation induced by diabetes decreased GLP-1R expression and protective action on the renal endothelium by increasing its degradation via ubiquitination and enhancing phospho–c-Raf(Ser338) and Ang II activation of phospho-Erk1/2. EC-PKCβ2Tg mice exhibited decreased GLP-1R expression and increased phospho–c-Raf(Ser338), leading to enhanced effects of Ang II. Diabetic EC-PKCβ2Tg mice exhibited greater loss of endothelial GLP-1R expression and exendin-4–protective actions and exhibited more albuminuria and mesangial expansion than diabetic controls. These results showed that the renal protective effects of GLP-1 were mediated via the inhibition of Ang II actions on cRaf(Ser259) and diminished by diabetes because of PKCβ activation and the increased degradation of GLP-1R in the glomerular endothelial cells.

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Insulin resistance has been associated with the progression of chronic kidney disease in both diabetes and obesity. This study characterizes insulin signaling in renal tubules and glomeruli in insulin resistant and diabetic states. Insulin-induced phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS1), Akt, endothelial nitric oxide (eNOS), and glycogen synthase kinase 3α (GSK3α) were selectively inhibited in the glomeruli but not in the renal tubules of both streptozotocin (STZ)-diabetic and Zucker fatty, insulin resistant rats compared to non-diabetic and Zucker lean rats. Protein levels, but not the mRNA expression, of IRS1 were decreased only in the glomeruli of STZ-diabetic rats and increased its association with ubiquitination. Protein kinase C (PKC) β isoform inhibitor, ruboxistaurin (RBX), treatment enhanced insulin actions and elevated IRS1 expression. In glomerular endothelial cells, high glucose inhibited phosphorylation of Akt, eNOS and GSK3α, decreased IRS1 protein expression and increased association with ubiquitination. Overexpression of IRS1 or the addition of RBX reversed the inhibitory effects of high glucose. Selective inhibition of the IRS1/PI3K/Akt pathway and insulin activation of eNOS and GSK3α in the glomeruli in diabetes and insulin resistance is partly due to increased IRS1 degradation and PKCβ activation. The loss of insulin's effect on endothelial eNOS and GSK3α activation may contribute to the glomeropathy observed in diabetes and obesity.