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Abstract. Most studies on coral reefs have focused on shallow reef (,30 m) systems due to the technical limitations of conducting scientific diving deeper than 30 m. Compared to their shallow-water counterparts, these mesophotic coral reefs (30-150 m) are understudied, which has slowed our broader understanding of the biodiversity, ecology, and connectivity of shallow and deep coral reef communities. We know that the light environment is an important component of the productivity, physiology, and ecology of corals, and it restricts the distribution of most species of coral to depths of 60 m or less. In the Bahamas, the coral Montastraea cavernosa has a wide depth distribution, and it is one of the most numerous corals at mesophotic depths. Using a range of optical, physiological, and biochemical approaches, the relative dependence on autotrophy vs. heterotrophy was assessed for this coral from 3 to 91 m. These measurements show that the quantum yield of PSII fluorescence increases significantly with depth for M. cavernosa while gross primary productivity decreases with depth. Both morphological and physiological photoacclimatization occurs to a depth of 91 m, and stable isotope data of the host tissues, symbionts, and skeleton reveal a marked decrease in productivity and a sharp transition to heterotrophy between 45 and 61 m. Below these depths, significant changes in the genetic composition of the zooxanthellae community, including genotypes not previously observed, occur and suggest that there is strong selection for zooxanthellae that are suited for survival in the light-limited environment where mesophotic M. cavernosa are occurring.

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Shrimp, a major seafood allergen, was investigated as a model food allergen. Extracts from both shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) meat and cooking fluid contain a substantial and similar amount of allergenic activity. A 36-kD allergen, demonstrated in both extracts by SDS-PAGE/Western blot analysis, reacted with 28/34 (82%) sera from shrimp-sensitive, skin test and RAST-positive, individuals. This allergen, named Pen a I, was isolated by SDS-PAGE; its amino acid composition was rich in aspartic and glutamic acids. A 21-residue peptide, obtained from endoproteinase Lys-C digested Pen a I by high-performance liquid chromatography, demonstrated significant homology (60–87%) with the muscle protein tropomyosin from various species and origins. The greatest homology (87%) was noted with tropomyosin of the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) reflecting the phylogenic relationship between these two arthropods. These studies demonstrate that tropomyosin is the major shrimp allergen. Although the amino acid sequence of this shrimp muscle protein shares considerable homology with tropomyosins of other species including man, significant differences remain in allergenic activity.

Mesophotic coral reefs, currently defined as deep reefs between 30 and 150 m, are linked physically and biologically to their shallow water counterparts, have the potential to be refuges for shallow coral reef taxa such as coral and sponges, and might be a source of larvae that could contribute to the resiliency of shallow water reefs. Mesophotic coral reefs are found worldwide, but most are undescribed and understudied. Here, we review our current knowledge of mesophotic coral reefs and their functional ecology as it relates to their geomorphology, changes in the abiotic environment along depth gradients, trophic ecology, their reproduction, and their connectivity to shallow depths. Understanding the ecology of mesophotic coral reefs, and the connectivity between them and their shallow water counterparts, is now a primary focus for many reef studies as the worldwide degradation of shallow coral reefs, and the ecosystem services they provide, continues unabated.

have been assumed to be physically and biologically connected to their shallow-water counterparts, and thus may serve as refugia for important taxonomic groups such as corals, sponges, and fish. The recent invasion of the Indo-Pacific lionfish (Pterois volitans) onto shallow reefs of the Caribbean and Bahamas has had significant, negative, effects on shallow coral reef fish populations. In the Bahamas, lionfish have extended their habitat range into mesophotic depths down to 91 m where they have reduced the diversity of several important fish guilds, including herbivores. A phase shift to an algal dominated ([50% benthic cover) community occurred simultaneously with the loss of herbivores to a depth of 61 m and caused a significant decline in corals and sponges at mesophotic depths. The effects of this invasive lionfish on mesophotic coral reefs and the subsequent changes in benthic community structure could not be explained by coral bleaching, overfishing, hurricanes, or disease independently or in combination. The significant ecological effects of the lionfish invasion into mesophotic depths of coral reefs casts doubt on whether these communities have the resilience to recover themselves or contribute to the recovery of their shallow water counterparts as refugia for key coral reef taxa.

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Benthic-pelagic coupling and the role of bottom-up versus top-down processes are recognized as having a major impact on the structure of marine communities. While the roles of bottom-up processes are better appreciated they are still viewed as principally affecting the outcome of top-down processes. Sponges on coral reefs are important members of the benthic community and provide a critically important functional linkage between water-column productivity and the benthos. As active suspension feeders sponges utilize the abundant autotrophic and heterotrophic picoplankton in the water column. As a result sponges across the Caribbean basin exhibit a consistent and significant pattern of greater biomass, tube extension rate, and species numbers with increasing depth. Likewise, the abundance of their food supply also increases along a depth gradient. Using experimental manipulations it has recently been reported that predation is the primary determinant of sponge community structure. Here we provide data showing that the size and growth of the sponge Callyspongia vaginalis are significantly affected by food availability. Sponges increased in size and tube extension rate with increasing depth down to 46 m, while simultaneously exposed to the full range of potential spongivores at all depths. Additionally, we point out important flaws in the experimental design used to demonstrate the role of predation and suggest that a resolution of this important question will require well-controlled, multi-factorial experiments to examine the independent and interactive effects of predation and food abundance on the ecology of sponges.