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Extant country-of-origin research has focused on the deliberate use of country-specific associations (CSAs) as a cognitive cue, captured by consumer responses to direct questioning. However, such responses only capture rational and verbally held aspects of CSAs and do not reveal emotional and nonverbally held aspects. Drawing from dual-coding theory, the authors (1) develop propositions about the existence of two distinct types of CSAs (rational and emotional) and the differences in consumers' communication of these associations, (2) apply a three-stage qualitative design in two complementary studies to test these propositions, (3) link the identified CSAs to brand origin recognition and brand ownership, and (4) generate a consumer typology on how CSAs are communicated. Their results indicate that people tend to communicate rational CSAs verbally and emotional CSAs nonverbally. Whereas both rational and emotional associations positively affect consumers' brand origin recognition accuracy, only emotional associations affect brand ownership. The authors consider theoretical and managerial implications in light of recent criticism on country-oforigin research and offer suggestions for further research.

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Despite extensive evidence that a brand's country-of-origin (COO) affects consumers’ brand evaluations and behavioral intentions, consumers are often reluctant to admit this influence. Challenging the proclaimed irrelevance of the COO concept, the present study assesses the phenomenon of COO cue usage denial, an unconscious defense mechanism that consumers apply to maintain an acceptable self-image. Drawing on self-affirmation theory and based on two experimental studies (combined N = 462), the authors demonstrate that a substantial proportion of consumers are influenced by the COO cue when assessing brands, despite claims to the contrary. Such consumers not only differ from consumers who do not know a brand's COO but also modify their brand assessments and behavioral intentions when exposed to a COO change. This study also develops a consumer typology based on both the stated (self-reported) and actual influence of a brand's COO, thus highlighting the importance of segmenting consumers according to their susceptibility to COO influences. The authors discuss several theoretical and managerial implications and identify directions for further research.

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