This study reports on a water quality assessment of the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene program implemented by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation in the districts of Charsadda and Nowshera in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, in the aftermath of the severe flood of 2010. During emergency operations, over 4,500 shallow wells were cleaned using the standard protocol suggested by the World Health Organization. Bacteriological analysis and chemical-physical parameters such as temperature, conductivity, turbidity and pH were tested before and after cleaning. Four to five years after the emergency operation, in 2014–15, a set of 105 representative wells was analyzed again, considering the same parameters and looking for additional contaminants (pesticides, arsenic and fluoride). The post-flood well-cleaning campaign was effective in the immediate reduction of fecal contamination of water (from 85% to 20% as measured 7–30 days after cleaning); however in the following months/years the rate of fecal contamination rose again (up to 62% of all measured domestic wells, n = 105). Along with laboratory analysis data, this study investigated the source of contamination of shallow wells and identified human practices in several cases. This information was useful for the design of future SDC interventions in the WASH sector.
Emergency responses in humanitarian contexts require rapid set-up of water supply. Boreholes are often drilled where the needs are highest and not where hydrogeological conditions are most favourable. The Rapid Groundwater Potential Mapping (RGWPM) methodology was therefore developed as a practical tool to support borehole siting when time is critical, allowing strategic planning of geophysical campaigns. RGWPM is based on the combined analysis of satellite images, digital elevation models and geological maps, obtained through spatial overlay of the two main hydrogeological variables controlling groundwater potential: water availability (WA) and reservoir capacity (RC). The WA associates hydrogeomorphological features to groundwater dynamic processes, while the RC reflects estimates of the hydraulic conductivity. RGWPM maps are produced through an overlay of WA and RC with the overall groundwater potential (GWP) characterized as ‘very low’, ‘low’, ‘medium’, and ‘high’, with each zone associated to a specific water supply option. The first RGWPM map was elaborated during a drilling campaign in Northern Uganda. The average yield for the eight boreholes sited ‘with’ RGWPM was 35 m3/h versus 3 m3/h for the 92 preexisting boreholes that were sited ‘without’ RGWPM. Statistical comparison of the classified yields of all hundred boreholes with the RGWPM predicted-yield ranges revealed a good correlation for the ‘low’ GWP unit, highlighting areas where well siting for motorised systems should be avoided. A rather poor correlation of 33% was found for the ‘medium’ GWP unit, believed to be artificially induced by the numerous hand pumps (low yields) located in potentially higher yielding areas.
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