Isoprene-emitting plants lose a large portion of their assimilated C as isoprene. Because isoprene synthesis can be regulated, it has been assumed that isoprene benefits the plant. Since the rate of isoprene emission from leaves is highly responsive to temperature, we hypothesized that isoprene benefits plants by increasing their thermotolerance. We used three methods to measure isopreneinduced thermotolerance in leaves. Each technique assayed thermotolerance under conditions that suppressed endogenous isoprene isoprerie. None of the experiments was designed to determine the mechanism of thermotolerance, but we theorize that isoprene functions by enhancing hydrophobic interactions in membranes.

Abstract. The capacity for volatile isoprenoid production under standardized environmental conditions at a certain time (E S , the emission factor) is a key characteristic in constructing isoprenoid emission inventories. However, there is large variation in published E S estimates for any given species partly driven by dynamic modifications in E S due to acclimation and stress responses. Here we review additional sources of variation in E S estimates that are due to measurement and analytical techniques and calculation and averaging procedures, and demonstrate that estimations of E S critically depend on applied experimental protocols and on data processing and reporting. A great variety of experimental setups has been used in the past, contributing to study-toCorrespondence to:Ü. Niinemets (ylo.niinemets@emu.ee) study variations in E S estimates. We suggest that past experimental data should be distributed into broad quality classes depending on whether the data can or cannot be considered quantitative based on rigorous experimental standards. Apart from analytical issues, the accuracy of E S values is strongly driven by extrapolation and integration errors introduced during data processing. Additional sources of error, especially in meta-database construction, can further arise from inconsistent use of units and expression bases of E S . We propose a standardized experimental protocol for BVOC estimations and highlight basic meta-information that we strongly recommend to report with any E S measurement. We conclude that standardization of experimental and calculation protocols and critical examination of past reports is essential for development of accurate emission factor databases.

Many plants synthesize isoprene. Because it is volatile and reacts rapidly with hydroxyl radicals, it is emitted to the atmosphere and plays a critical role in atmospheric chemistry. Determining effective remediation efforts for ozone pollution requires accurate isoprene-emission inventories. Temperature and light effects on isoprene emission from plants over minutes to a few hours are fairly well known, but effects over a few days (i.e., influenced by weather) are also possible. We measured isoprene emission and photosynthesis under constant temperature and light (known as the basal emission rate, which reflects the capacity for isoprene emission) during eight field trips from 1994 to 1996. Measurements were made at the tops of oak trees at two sites between May and September. On six of the trips, the effect of short-term (minutes to hours) temperature changes was also investigated. The basal emission rate of isoprene was highly correlated with the average temperature of the previous two days. Including the average daily dose of photosynthetically active radiation for the previous two days improved the correlation. Using averages from one, four, or seven days before the measurement resulted in lower correlation coefficients. Including a variable basal emission rate will improve the accuracy of isoprene-emission models.

The ability of a plant to produce grain, fruit, or forage depends ultimately on photosynthesis. There have been few attempts, however, to study microRNAs, which are a class of endogenous small RNAs post-transcriptionally programming gene expression, in relation to photosynthetic traits. We focused on miR408, one of the most conserved plant miRNAs, and overexpressed it in parallel in Arabidopsis, tobacco, and rice. The transgenic plants all exhibited increased copper content in the chloroplast, elevated abundance of plastocyanin, and an induction of photosynthetic genes. By means of gas exchange and optical spectroscopy analyses, we showed that higher expression of miR408 leads to enhanced photosynthesis through improving efficiency of irradiation utilization and the capacity for carbon dioxide fixation. Consequently, miR408 hyper-accumulating plants exhibited higher rate of vegetative growth. An enlargement of seed size was also observed in all three species overproducing miR408. Moreover, we conducted a 2-year-two-location field trial and observed miR408 overexpression in rice significantly increased yield, which was primarily attributed to an elevation in grain weight. Taken together, these results demonstrate that miR408 is a positive regulator of photosynthesis and that its genetic engineering is a promising route for enhancing photosynthetic performance and yield in diverse plants.

Plant resource allocation patterns often reveal tradeoffs that favor growth (G) over defense (D), or vice versa. Ecologists most often explain G-D tradeoffs through principles of economic optimality, in which negative trait correlations are attributed to the reconciliation of fitness costs. Recently, researchers in molecular biology have developed 'big data' resources including multiomic (e.g. transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic) studies that describe the cellular processes controlling gene expression in model species. In this synthesis, we bridge ecological theory with discoveries in multi-omics biology to better understand how selection has shaped the mechanisms of G-D tradeoffs. Multi-omic studies reveal strategically coordinated patterns in resource allocation that are enabled by phytohormone crosstalk and transcriptional signal cascades. Coordinated resource allocation justifies the framework of optimality theory, while providing mechanistic insight into the feedbacks and control hubs that calibrate G-D tradeoff commitments. We use the existing literature to describe the coordinated resource allocation hypothesis (CoRAH) that accounts for balanced cellular controls during the expression of G-D tradeoffs, while sustaining stored resource pools to buffer the impacts of future stresses. The integrative mechanisms of the CoRAH unify the supply-and demand-side perspectives of previous G-D tradeoff theories.