Many parasitic nematodes actively seek out hosts in which to complete their lifecycles. Olfaction is thought to play an important role in the host-seeking process, with parasites following a chemical trail toward host-associated odors. However, little is known about the olfactory cues that attract parasitic nematodes to hosts or the behavioral responses these cues elicit. Moreover, what little is known focuses on easily obtainable laboratory hosts rather than on natural or other ecologically relevant hosts. Here we investigate the olfactory responses of six diverse species of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) to seven ecologically relevant potential invertebrate hosts, including one known natural host and other potential hosts collected from the environment. We show that EPNs respond differentially to the odor blends emitted by live potential hosts as well as to individual host-derived odorants. In addition, we show that EPNs use the universal host cue CO 2 as well as host-specific odorants for host location, but the relative importance of CO 2 versus host-specific odorants varies for different parasite-host combinations and for different host-seeking behaviors. We also identified host-derived odorants by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and found that many of these odorants stimulate host-seeking behaviors in a species-specific manner. Taken together, our results demonstrate that parasitic nematodes have evolved specialized olfactory systems that likely contribute to appropriate host selection.entomopathogens | chemosensation | Heterorhabditis | Steinernema M any parasitic nematodes actively seek out hosts using sensory cues (1). Host seeking is a complex behavior that involves chemosensory, thermosensory, hygrosensory, and mechanosensory cues (1-4). Olfaction is a critical component of host-seeking behavior: Many parasitic nematodes use CO 2 and other host volatiles for host location (1, 2, 5-8). However, little is known about how parasites respond to host-derived odors.Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are powerful models for the study of odor-driven host-seeking behavior. EPNs comprise a guild-a group of phylogenetically divergent species that exploit the same class of resources in a similar way (9)-that includes the genera Heterorhabditis, Steinernema, and Oscheius (10, 11). EPNs are parasites of insects that infect and kill insect larvae (10, 11). They offer a number of advantages as model systems, including small size, short generation time, and amenability to laboratory culturing and behavioral analysis (12, 13). In addition, they resemble skin-penetrating human-parasitic nematodes in that they actively seek out hosts using olfactory cues (2,7,(13)(14)(15)(16). EPNs also are of interest as biocontrol agents for insect pests and disease vectors and currently are used throughout the world as environmentally safe alternatives to chemical insecticides. The three genera of EPNs are phylogenetically distant but have highly similar lifestyles as a result of convergent evolution to insect parasitism (17).EPN...

Summary Many chemosensory stimuli evoke innate behavioral responses that can be either appetitive or aversive depending on an animal’s age, prior experience, nutritional status, and environment [1–9]. However, the circuit mechanisms that enable these valence changes are poorly understood. Here, we show that Caenorhabditis elegans can alternate between attractive or aversive responses to carbon dioxide (CO2) depending on its recently experienced CO2 environment. Both responses are mediated by a single pathway of interneurons. The CO2-evoked activity of these interneurons is subject to extreme experience-dependent modulation, enabling them to drive opposite behavioral responses to CO2. Other interneurons in the circuit regulate behavioral sensitivity to CO2 independent of valence. A combinatorial code of neuropeptides acts on the circuit to regulate both valence and sensitivity. Chemosensory valence-encoding interneurons exist across phyla, and valence is typically determined by whether appetitive or aversive interneuron populations are activated. Our results reveal an alternative mechanism of valence determination in which the same interneurons contribute to both attractive and aversive responses through modulation of sensory neuron to interneuron synapses. This circuit design represents a previously unrecognized mechanism for generating rapid changes in innate chemosensory valence.

Many animals sense environmental gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen using specialized populations of gas-sensing neurons. The proper development and function of these neurons is critical for survival, as the inability to respond to changes in ambient carbon dioxide and oxygen levels can result in reduced neural activity and ultimately death. Despite the importance of gas-sensing neurons for survival, little is known about the developmental programs that underlie their formation. Here we identify the ETS-family transcription factor ETS-5 as critical for the normal differentiation of the carbon dioxide-sensing BAG neurons in Caenorhabditis elegans. Whereas wild-type animals show acute behavioral avoidance of carbon dioxide, ets-5 mutant animals do not respond to carbon dioxide. The ets-5 gene is expressed in BAG neurons and is required for the normal expression of the BAG neuron gene battery. ets-5 may also autoregulate its expression in BAG neurons. ets-5 is not required for BAG neuron formation, indicating that it is specifically involved in BAG neuron differentiation and the maintenance of BAG neuron cell fate. Our results demonstrate a novel role for ETS genes in the development and function of gas-detecting sensory neurons.

Sensory behaviors are often flexible, allowing animals to generate context-appropriate responses to changing environmental conditions. To investigate the neural basis of behavioral flexibility, we examined the regulation of carbon dioxide (CO2) response in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. CO2 is a critical sensory cue for many animals, mediating responses to food, conspecifics, predators, and hosts (Buehlmann et al., 2012; Chaisson and Hallem, 2012; Scott, 2011). In C. elegans, CO2 response is regulated by the polymorphic neuropeptide receptor NPR-1: animals with the N2 allele of npr-1 avoid CO2, while animals with the Hawaiian (HW) allele or an npr-1 loss-of-function (lf) mutation appear virtually insensitive to CO2 (Hallem and Sternberg, 2008; McGrath et al., 2009). Here we show that ablating the oxygen (O2)-sensing URX neurons in npr-1(lf) mutants restores CO2 avoidance, suggesting that NPR-1 enables CO2 avoidance by inhibiting URX neurons. URX was previously shown to be activated by increases in ambient O2 (Busch et al., 2012; Persson et al., 2009; Zimmer et al., 2009). We find that in npr-1(lf) mutants, O2-induced activation of URX inhibits CO2 avoidance. Moreover, both HW and npr-1(lf) animals avoid CO2 under low O2 conditions, when URX is inactive. Our results demonstrate that CO2 response is determined by the activity of O2-sensing neurons, and suggest that O2-dependent regulation of CO2 avoidance is likely to be an ecologically relevant mechanism by which nematodes navigate gas gradients.

Hunger affects the behavioral choices of all animals, and many chemosensory stimuli can be either attractive or repulsive depending on an animal’s hunger state. Although hunger-induced behavioral changes are well documented, the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which hunger modulates neural circuit function to generate changes in chemosensory valence are poorly understood. Here, we use the CO2 response of the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to elucidate how hunger alters valence. We show that CO2 response valence shifts from aversion to attraction during starvation, a change that is mediated by two pairs of interneurons in the CO2 circuit, AIY and RIG. The transition from aversion to attraction is regulated by biogenic amine signaling. Dopamine promotes CO2 repulsion in well-fed animals, whereas octopamine promotes CO2 attraction in starved animals. Biogenic amines also regulate the temporal dynamics of the shift from aversion to attraction such that animals lacking octopamine show a delayed shift to attraction. Biogenic amine signaling regulates CO2 response valence by modulating the CO2-evoked activity of AIY and RIG. Our results illuminate a new role for biogenic amine signaling in regulating chemosensory valence as a function of hunger state.