The type III-secreted proteins NopE1 and NopE2 of Bradyrhizobium japonicum contain a repeated domain of unknown function (DUF1521), which is present in a few uncharacterized proteins. A nopE1/nopE2 double mutant strain exhibited higher nodulation efficiency on Vigna radiata KPS2 than the wild type or single nopE1 or nopE2 mutants. This indicates that both proteins are effectors that functionally overlap. To test translocation into the plant cell compartment during symbiosis, NopE1 and NopE2 were fused with adenylate cyclase (cya) as reporter. A fusion with the full-length proteins or N-terminal peptides resulted in increased cAMP levels in nodules, indicating translocation. Purified NopE1 exhibited self-cleavage in the presence of Ca(2+). Two identical cleavage sites (GD'PHVD) were identified inside the DUF1521 domains. The C-terminal cleavage site was analyzed by alanine scanning. Protein variants in which aspartate or proline next to the cleavage sites was substituted displayed no cleavage. A noncleavable protein was obtained by exchange of the aspartate residues preceding both cleavage sites. Complementation analysis with the noncleavable NopE1 variant did not restore wild-type phenotype on Vigna radiata KPS2, indicating a physiological role of NopE1 cleavage in effector function.

In Bradyrhizobium japonicum, as in some other rhizobia, symbiotic efficiency is influenced by a type III secretion system (T3SS). Most genes encoding the transport machinery and secreted proteins are preceded by a conserved 30-bp motif, the type-three secretion (tts) box. In this study, we found that regions downstream of 34 tts boxes are transcribed. For nopB, nopL, and gunA2, the transcriptional start sites were found to be 12, 11, and 10 bp downstream of their tts boxes, respectively. The deletion of this motif or modification of two or more conserved residues strongly reduced expression of nopB. This indicates that the tts box is an essential promoter element. Data obtained with lacZ reporter gene fusions of five genes preceded by a tts box (gunA2, nopB, rhcV, nopL, and blr1806) revealed that they are expressed in 4-week-old nodules of Macroptilium atropurpureum. These data suggest that the T3SS is active in mature nitrogen-fixing nodules. The two-component response regulator TtsI is required for the expression of rhcV, nopL, and blr1806 in bacteroids. Staining of inoculated roots showed that nopB is also expressed in early infection stages.

NopE1 is a type III-secreted protein of the symbiont Bradyrhizobium japonicum which is expressed in nodules.In vitro it exhibits self-cleavage in a duplicated domain of unknown function (DUF1521) but only in the presence of calcium. Here we show that either domain is self-sufficient for cleavage. An exchange of the aspartic acid residue at the cleavage site with asparagine prevented cleavage; however, cleavage was still observed with glutamic acid at the same position, indicating that a negative charge at the cleavage site is sufficient. Close to each cleavage site, an EF-hand-like motif is present. A replacement of one of the conserved aspartic acid residues with alanine prevented cleavage at the neighboring site. Except for EDTA, none of several protease inhibitors blocked cleavage, suggesting that a known protease-like mechanism is not involved in the reaction. In line with this, the reaction takes place within a broad pH and temperature range. Interestingly, magnesium, manganese, and several other divalent cations did not induce cleavage, indicating a highly specific calciumbinding site. Based on results obtained by blue-native gel electrophoresis, it is likely that the uncleaved protein forms a dimer and that the fragments of the cleaved protein oligomerize. A database search reveals that the DUF1521 domain is present in proteins encoded by Burkholderia phytofirmans PsNJ (a plant growthpromoting betaproteobacterium) and Vibrio coralliilyticus ATCC BAA450 (a pathogenic gammaproteobacterium). Obviously, this domain is more widespread in proteobacteria, and it might contribute to the interaction with hosts.

Previous microarray analyses revealed that in Bradyrhizobium japonicum, about 100 genes are induced by genistein, an isoflavonoid secreted by soybean. This includes the three genes freC, freA, and freB (systematic designations bll4319, bll4320, and bll4321), which are likely to form a genistein-, daidzein-, and coumestrol-inducible operon and to encode a multidrug efflux system. Upstream of freCAB and in the opposite orientation, FrrA (systematic designation Blr4322), which has similarity to TetRtype regulators, is encoded. A deletion of frrA leads to increased expression of freB in the absence of an inducer. We identified the correct translational start codon of frrA and showed that the gene is inducible by genistein and daidzein. The protein, which was heterologously expressed and purified from Escherichia coli, binds to two palindrome-like DNA elements (operator A and operator B), which are located in the intergenic region between freC and frrA. The replacement of several nucleotides or the insertion of additional spacer nucleotides prevented binding. Binding of FrrA was also affected by the addition of genistein. By mapping the transcription start sites, we found that operator A covers the transcriptional start site of freC and operator B is probably located between the ؊35 regions of the two divergently oriented genes. Operator A seems to be conserved in a few similar gene constellations in other proteobacteria. Our data indicate that in B. japonicum, besides NodD1 (the LysR family) and NodVW (a two-component response regulator), a third regulator type (a TetR family member) which responds to the plant signal molecules genistein and daidzein exists.

Bioconversions in industrial processes are currently dominated by single‐strain approaches. With the growing complexity of tasks to be carried out, microbial consortia become increasingly advantageous and eventually may outperform single‐strain fermentations. Consortium approaches benefit from the combined metabolic capabilities of highly specialized strains and species, and the inherent division of labor reduces the metabolic burden for each strain while increasing product yields and reaction specificities. However, consortium‐based designs still suffer from a lack of available tools to control the behavior and performance of the individual subpopulations and of the entire consortium. Here, we propose to implement novel control elements for microbial consortia based on artificial cell–cell communication via fungal mating pheromones. Coupling to the desired output is mediated by pheromone‐responsive gene expression, thereby creating pheromone‐dependent communication channels between different subpopulations of the consortia. We highlight the benefits of artificial communication to specifically target individual subpopulations of microbial consortia and to control e.g. their metabolic profile or proliferation rate in a predefined and customized manner. Due to the steadily increasing knowledge of sexual cycles of industrially relevant fungi, a growing number of strains and species can be integrated into pheromone‐controlled sensor‐actor systems, exploiting their unique metabolic properties for microbial consortia approaches.