Although endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is a pathologic mechanism in a variety of chronic diseases, it is unclear what role it plays in chronic hypertension (HTN). Dysregulation of brain mechanisms controlling arterial pressure is strongly implicated in HTN, particularly in models involving angiotensin II (Ang II). We tested the hypothesis that ER stress in the brain is causally linked to Ang II-dependent HTN. Chronic systemic infusion of low-dose Ang II in C57BL/6 mice induced slowly developing HTN, which was abolished by co-infusion of the ER stress inhibitor tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) into the lateral cerebroventricle. Investigations of the brain regions involved revealed robust increases in ER stress biomarkers and profound ER morphological abnormalities in the circumventricular subfornical organ (SFO), a region outside the blood-brain barrier and replete with Ang II receptors. Ang II-induced HTN could be prevented in this model by selective genetic supplementation of the ER chaperone 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78) in the SFO. These data demonstrate that Ang II-dependent HTN is mediated by ER stress in the brain, particularly the SFO. To our knowledge, this is the first report that ER stress, notably brain ER stress, plays a key role in chronic HTN. Taken together, these findings may have broad implications for the pathophysiology of this disease.

The Ran-binding protein 2 (RanBP2) is a large multimodular and pleiotropic protein. Several molecular partners with distinct functions interacting specifically with selective modules of RanBP2 have been identified. Yet, the significance of these interactions with RanBP2 and the genetic and physiological role(s) of RanBP2 in a whole-animal model remain elusive. Here, we report the identification of two novel partners of RanBP2 and a novel physiological role of RanBP2 in a mouse model. RanBP2 associates in vitro and in vivo and colocalizes with the mitochondrial metallochaperone, Cox11, and the pacemaker of glycolysis, hexokinase type I (HKI) via its leucine-rich domain. The leucine-rich domain of RanBP2 also exhibits strong chaperone activity toward intermediate and mature folding species of Cox11 supporting a chaperone role of RanBP2 in the cytosol during Cox11 biogenesis. Cox11 partially colocalizes with HKI, thus supporting additional and distinct roles in cell function. Cox11 is a strong inhibitor of HKI, and RanBP2 suppresses the inhibitory activity of Cox11 over HKI. To probe the physiological role of RanBP2 and its role in HKI function, a mouse model harboring a genetically disrupted RanBP2 locus was generated. RanBP2−/− are embryonically lethal, and haploinsufficiency of RanBP2 in an inbred strain causes a pronounced decrease of HKI and ATP levels selectively in the central nervous system. Inbred RanBP2+/− mice also exhibit deficits in growth rates and glucose catabolism without impairment of glucose uptake and gluconeogenesis. These phenotypes are accompanied by a decrease in the electrophysiological responses of photosensory and postreceptoral neurons. Hence, RanBP2 and its partners emerge as critical modulators of neuronal HKI, glucose catabolism, energy homeostasis, and targets for metabolic, aging disorders and allied neuropathies.

Abstract-The renin-angiotensin system exerts a tremendous influence over fluid balance and arterial pressure. Angiotensin II (Ang-II), the effector peptide of the renin-angiotensin system, acts in the central nervous system to regulate neurohumoral outflow and thirst. Dysregulation of Ang-II signaling in the central nervous system is implicated in cardiovascular diseases; however, the mechanisms remain poorly understood. Key Words: hypertension Ⅲ blood pressure Ⅲ water intake Ⅲ subfornical organ Ⅲ adenovirus Ⅲ siRNA H ighly conserved throughout evolution, the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is vital for maintaining fluid and arterial pressure homeostasis. Osmoregulation in the leech, water swallowing in euryhaline fish, and sodium appetite in pigeons all are mediated by the RAS. 1,2 As cardiovascular systems have evolved, the RAS has kept pace; in higher-order animals, the RAS is intricately involved with nearly every aspect of cardiovascular function. Angiotensin II (Ang-II), the primary effector peptide of the RAS, acts in the central nervous system (CNS) to modulate autonomic tone, increase thirst, and initiate the release of neurohormones. 3 Circulating Ang-II is detected by circumventricular organs (CVOs), specialized brain regions that lie outside of the blood-brain barrier and connect to key cardioregulatory regions within the CNS. 4 In addition, because most of these CNS cardiovascular nuclei possess the enzymatic machinery to generate Ang-II locally, 5,6 this source of the peptide is also important in modulating neurotransmission. The tremendous impact of RAS-CNS interactions on normal cardiovascular physiology has prompted many investigations of their role in cardiovascular disease. Indeed, mounting evidence has implicated dysregulation of central Ang-II signaling in hypertension and heart failure both in the clinic and in experimental models. 7 However, despite a century's worth of studies aimed at uncovering the physiology and pathophysiology of the RAS, 8 the precise neural pathways and molecular mechanisms involved in Ang-II signaling in the CNS remain unresolved.Pioneering studies by Mangiapane and Simpson 9 Ͼ30 years ago implicated the subfornical organ (SFO), a prominent forebrain CVO, as a key interface between circulating Ang-II and cardioregulatory centers of the brain. Recently, we demonstrated a critical role for superoxide (O 2•Ϫ ) production in this brain region in mediating the classical pressor, bradycardic, and dipsogenic responses elicited by intracerebroventricular (ICV) delivery of Ang-II. 10 In addition, we have identified a Rac1-dependent NADPH oxidase (Nox), a multisubunit enzyme that catalyzes the 1 electron transfer from NADPH to molecular oxygen, 11 as a primary source of Ang-II-dependent O 2•Ϫ production in the SFO. 12 Genetic inhibition of this enzyme complex in the SFO attenuated the cardiovascular and dipsogenic profiles to ICV administration of Ang-II. 12 Recent studies using pharmacological or peptide inhibitors (eg, gp91dstat 13 ) have also confirmed NADPH

Cyclooxygenase (COX)-derived prostanoids have long been implicated in blood pressure (BP) regulation. Recently prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and its receptor EP1R have emerged as key players in angiotensin II (Ang-II)-dependent hypertension (HTN) and related end-organ damage. However, the enzymatic source of PGE2, ie COX-1 or COX-2, and its site(s) of action are not known. The subfornical organ (SFO) is a key forebrain region that mediates systemic Ang-II-dependent HTN via reactive oxygen species (ROS). We tested the hypothesis that cross-talk between PGE2/EP1R and ROS signaling in the SFO is required for Ang-II HTN. Radiotelemetric assessment of BP revealed that HTN induced by infusion of systemic “slow-pressor” doses of Ang-II was abolished in mice with null mutations in EP1R or COX-1 but not COX-2. Slow-pressor Ang-II-evoked HTN and ROS formation in the SFO were prevented when the EP1R antagonist SC-51089 was infused directly into brains of wild-type mice, and Ang-II-induced ROS production was blunted in cells dissociated from SFO of EP1R−/− and COX-1−/− but not COX-2−/− mice. In addition, slow-pressor Ang-II infusion caused a ~3-fold increase in PGE2 levels in the SFO but not in other brain regions. Finally, genetic reconstitution of EP1R selectively in the SFO of EP1R-null mice was sufficient to rescue slow-pressor AngII-elicited HTN and ROS formation in the SFO of this model. Thus, COX-1-derived PGE2 signaling through EP1R in the SFO is required for the ROS-mediated HTN induced by systemic infusion of Ang-II, and suggests that EP1R in the SFO may provide a novel target for antihypertensive therapy.

Adaptive changes in glutamatergic signaling within the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) may play a role in the neurohumoral dysfunction underlying the hypertension induced by "slow-pressor" ANG II infusion. We hypothesized that these adaptive changes alter production of gp91phox NADPH oxidase (NOX)-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) or nitric oxide (NO), resulting in enhanced glutamatergic signaling in the PVN. Electron microscopic immunolabeling showed colocalization of NOX2 and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) NR1 subunits in PVN dendrites, an effect enhanced (+48%, P < 0.05 vs. saline) in mice receiving ANG II (600 ng·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹ sc). Isolated PVN cells or spinally projecting PVN neurons from ANG II-infused mice had increased levels of ROS at baseline (+40 ± 5% and +57.6 ± 7.7%, P < 0.01 vs. saline) and after NMDA (+24 ± 7% and +17 ± 5.5%, P < 0.01 and P < 0.05 vs. saline). In contrast, ANG II infusion suppressed NO production in PVN cells at baseline (-29.1 ± 5.2%, P < 0.05 vs. saline) and after NMDA (-18.9 ± 2%, P < 0.01 vs. saline), an effect counteracted by NOX inhibition. In whole cell recording of unlabeled and spinally labeled PVN neurons in slices, NMDA induced a larger inward current in ANG II than in saline groups (+79 ± 24% and +82.9 ± 6.6%, P < 0.01 vs. saline), which was reversed by the ROS scavenger MnTBAP and the NO donor S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (P > 0.05 vs. control). These findings suggest that slow-pressor ANG II increases the association of NR1 with NOX2 in dendrites of PVN neurons, resulting in enhanced NOX-derived ROS and reduced NO during glutamatergic activity. The resulting enhancement of NMDAR activity may contribute to the neurohumoral dysfunction underlying the development of slow-pressor ANG II hypertension.

Redox status has emerged as critical in modulating stemness and lineage commitment in several precursor cell types. However, a role for redox genes, specifically NADPH oxidases (Nox), in cardiac precursor cells (CPCs) has not been established. We tested whether CPCs marked by type III receptor tyrosine kinase c-kit (c-kit(+)) exhibit a unique NADPH oxidase signature that confers precursor status and whether alterations in this profile are functionally linked to changes in lineage specification. Dihydroethidium (DHE) microfluorography indicated reduced basal reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation within early postnatal c-kit(+) CPCs. Real-time quantitative PCR revealed downregulation of ROS generator Nox2 and its subunit p67(phox) in c-kit(+) CPCs under basal conditions but upregulation of Nox2 and Nox4 over the course of differentiation. Adenoviral silencing of Nox2 and Nox4 increased expression of CPC markers c-kit and Flk-1 and blunted smooth and cardiac muscle differentiation, respectively, while overexpression of Nox2 and Nox4 significantly reduced c-kit expression. These changes were accompanied by altered expression of transcription factors regulating cardiac lineage commitment, Gata6 and Gata4, and cytokine transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1. Similar to other precursor cell types, RT(2)Profiler PCR Arrays revealed that c-kit(+) CPCs also exhibit enhanced antioxidant capacity at the mRNA level. In conclusion, we report that c-kit(+) CPCs demonstrate reduced Nox2 expression and ROS levels and that increases in Nox2 and Nox4 influence their differentiation into mature cells. We speculate that ROS generators Nox2 and Nox4, along with the antioxidant genes identified by PCR Arrays, may be novel targets in CPCs that could prove useful in cell-based therapy of the heart.

SummaryMutations affecting the retinitis pigmentosa GTPase regulator-interacting protein 1 (RPGRIP1) interactome cause syndromic retinal dystrophies. RPGRIP1 interacts with the retinitis pigmentosa GTPase regulator (RPGR) through a domain homologous to RCC1 (RHD), a nucleotide exchange factor of Ran GTPase. However, functional relationships between RPGR and RPGRIP1 and their subcellular roles are lacking. We show by molecular modeling and analyses of RPGR disease-mutations that the RPGR-interacting domain (RID) of RPGRIP1 embraces multivalently the shared RHD of RPGR1–19 and RPGRORF15 isoforms and the mutations are non-overlapping with the interface found between RCC1 and Ran GTPase. RPGR disease-mutations grouped into six classes based on their structural locations and differential impairment with RPGRIP1 interaction. RPGRIP1α1 expression alone causes its profuse self-aggregation, an effect suppressed by co-expression of either RPGR isoform before and after RPGRIP1α1 self-aggregation ensue. RPGR1–19 localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum, whereas RPGRORF15 presents cytosolic distribution and they determine uniquely the subcellular co-localization of RPGRIP1α1. Disease mutations in RPGR1–19, RPGRORF15, or RID of RPGRIP1α1, singly or in combination, exert distinct effects on the subcellular targeting, co-localization or tethering of RPGRIP1α1 with RPGR1–19 or RPGRORF15 in kidney, photoreceptor and hepatocyte cell lines. Additionally, RPGRORF15, but not RPGR1–19, protects the RID of RPGRIP1α1 from limited proteolysis. These studies define RPGR- and cell-type-dependent targeting pathways with structural and functional plasticity modulating the expression of mutations in RPGR and RPGRIP1. Further, RPGR isoforms distinctively determine the subcellular targeting of RPGRIP1α1, with deficits in RPGRORF15-dependent intracellular localization of RPGRIP1α1 contributing to pathomechanisms shared by etiologically distinct syndromic retinal dystrophies.

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