The notion of critical thinking and its theoretical complexity are used as a case for an epistemological critique of the model of intended learning outcomes. The conclusion is that three problems of learning outcomes, previously discussed in the literature, become even more challenging when seen in the light of critical thinking. The first problem concerns interpretations, as the use of learning outcomes is dependent on advanced but implicit interpretative frameworks. The second is the problem of educational goals that cannot be expressed through learning outcomes, and the third is the risk that learning outcomes may establish a ceiling for student ambitions. It is argued that the example of critical thinking shows the seriousness of the epistemological critique of learning outcomes and how the use of learning outcomes can divert teachers' and students' attention away from important goals.

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Within academia, clear and standardised communication is vital. From this point of departure, we discuss the trustworthiness of teaching portfolios when used in assessment. Here, misconduct and fraud are discussed in terms of fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism, following the literature on research fraud. We argue that the portfolio's unclear academic status and confusing standards makes it difficult to define misconduct. We see a risk that the practice of portfolio writing for assessment can lead to misconduct, including downright lies about accomplishments. We conclude that the trustworthiness of teaching portfolios is a responsibility for the academic community as a whole.

This chapter focuses on how teachers in clinical psychology and social work departments teach students how to encounter clients and listen to their narratives. These skills are needed since the students will encounter complex, unpredictable, and unique situations and clients. To learn these skills, students need a safe environment in which they are permitted to practice, reflect, and make mistakes. Few studies have focused on how university teachers help students to develop their ability to listen to clients’ narratives. Teachers’ experiences are relevant for understanding the prerequisites, challenges, and possibilities to support students to recognize clients’ narratives. The study described in this chapter focused on the experiences and practices of university teachers in clinical psychology and social work who are teaching students how to listen to clients’ narratives.

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