Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are believed to be the primary causal agents for development of pre-neoplastic and malignant lesions of the uterine cervix, and high-risk types such as type 16 and 18 are associated with more than 90% of all cervical carcinomas. The E6 and E7 genes of HPV are thought to play causative roles, since E6 promotes the degradation of p53 through its interaction with E6AP, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, whereas E7 binds to the retinoblastoma protein ( (Fig. 1). More than 100 HPV genotypes have been described so far and approximately 40 of them infect the genital mucosa. These HPV are classified into low-or high-risk types according to their presence in malignant lesions of the cervix, and high-risk types (16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 51, 52, 58, etc.) are associated with more than 90% of cervical cancers. Of these, HPV16 accounts for approximately half of all cervical cancers while HPV18 is involved in another 10-20%, (1) . HPV infection has also been suggested to cause the majority of anal cancers as well as a subset of vulvar, vaginal and penile cancers.(2) An association between the presence of HPV and the development of head and neck cancer has also been recently established. The HPV viral oncogenes, E6 and E7, have been shown to be the main contributors to the development of HPV-induced cervical cancer and increased expression, probably due to integration of the viral DNA in the host cell genome, has been detected in invasive cancers and a subset of high-grade lesions. Inactivation of tumor suppressor p53 and/or retinoblastoma protein (pRb) is a common event for the carcinogenesis of human cells. Both E6 and E7 HPV oncogenes interact with and inhibit the activities of these tumor suppressors. Furthermore multifunctional properties of the two proteins have been revealed (see below). The HPV life cycleThe HPV life cycle is tightly linked to their host cell biology (Fig. 2). Normal squamous epithelial cells grow as stratified epithelium, with those in the basal layers dividing as stem cells or transit amplifying cells. After division, one of the daughter cells migrates upward and begins to undergo terminal differentiation while the other remains in the basal layer as a slow-cycling, self-renewing population.(5) HPV virions initially infect the basal layers of the epithelium, probably through microwounds and enter cells via interaction with certain receptors such as α-6 integrin for HPV16. (6) In infected cells at the basal layer, low levels of viral DNA are synthesized to an episomal copy number of approximately 50 -100 genomes per cell. The early HPV genes E1 and E2 support viral DNA replication and its segregation so that the infected stem cells can be maintained in the lesion for a long period. As infected daughter cells migrate to the upper layers of the epithelium, viral late gene products are produced to initiate the vegetative phase of the HPV life cycle, resulting in high-level amplification of the viral genome. As the viral DNA replication almost totally depends on host replication factors exce...

Malignant tumor cells frequently achieve resistance to anoikis, a form of apoptosis induced by detachment from the basement membrane, which results in the anchorage-independent growth of these cells. Although the involvement of Src family kinases (SFKs) in this alteration has been reported, little is known about the signaling pathways involved in the regulation of anoikis under the control of SFKs. In this study, we identified a membrane protein, CUB-domain-containing protein 1 (CDCP1), as an SFK-binding phosphoprotein associated with the anchorage independence of human lung adenocarcinoma. Using RNA interference suppression and overexpression of CDCP1 mutants in lung cancer cells, we found that tyrosine-phosphorylated CDCP1 is required to overcome anoikis in lung cancer cells. An apoptosis-related molecule, protein kinase C␦, was found to be phosphorylated by the CDCP1-SFK complex and was essential for anoikis resistance downstream of CDCP1. Loss of CDCP1 also inhibited the metastatic potential of the A549 cells in vivo. Our findings indicate that CDCP1 is a novel target for treating cancer-specific disorders, such as metastasis, by regulating anoikis in lung adenocarcinoma.

The E6 protein of cervical cancer-associated human papillomaviruses (HPVs) is known to suppress keratinocyte differentiation through unidentified mechanisms. Notch1 is a determinant of keratinocyte differentiation and functions as a tumor suppressor in mammalian epidermis. Here, we report that the Notch1 gene is a novel target of p53 and can be down-regulated by E6 through p53 degradation in normal human epithelial cells. Thus, inactivation of p53 by E6 or short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) resulted in reduced Notch1 expression at the transcription level, and a p53-responsive element could be identified in the Notch1 promoter. The expression of E6, p53 shRNA, or Notch1 shRNA suppressed both spontaneous keratinocyte differentiation in culture and its induction upon DNA damage. Furthermore, the induction of Notch1 and differentiation makers as well as thickening of the epidermal layer upon UV irradiation was observed in wild-type but not in p53-deficient mouse skin. Together, our findings not only demonstrate a novel link between p53 and Notch1 in keratinocyte differentiation upon genotoxic stress but also suggest a novel tumor suppressor mechanism of p53 in the development of squamous cell carcinomas, including HPV-induced tumors.A specific group of so-called high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs), such as HPV16 and HPV18, is associated with more than 90% of cervical cancers (60). Infection with these HPVs causes cervical dysplasia or low-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), and cervical cancers are thought to arise from these lesions after long periods of time (32, 70). The E6 and E7 proteins of HPVs are expressed at relatively low levels in the basal cells of low-grade CIN lesions, where the viral genomes replicate episomally. When high-level expression of E6 and E7 occurs, in most cases with integration of viral genomes into the host genome, neoplastic development is believed to be initiated (59). In fact, E6 and E7 proteins are invariably expressed in HPV-positive cervical cancer cells and inactivate the major tumor suppressors p53 and Rb, respectively, thus contributing to HPV-induced oncogenesis.

The activity of human Cdt1 is negatively regulated by multiple mechanisms. This suggests that Cdt1 deregulation may have a deleterious effect. Indeed, it has been suggested that overexpression of Cdt1 can induce rereplication in cancer cells and that rereplication activates Ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) kinase and/or ATM- and Rad3-related (ATR) kinase-dependent checkpoint pathways. In this report, we highlight a new and interesting aspect of Cdt1 deregulation: data from several different systems all strongly indicate that unregulated Cdt1 overexpression at pathophysiological levels can induce chromosomal damage other than rereplication in non-transformed cells. The most important finding in these studies is that deregulated Cdt1 induces chromosomal damage and activation of the ATM-Chk2 DNA damage checkpoint pathway even in quiescent cells. These Cdt1 activities are negatively regulated by cyclin A/Cdks, probably through modification by phosphorylation. Furthermore, we found that deregulated Cdt1 induces chromosomal instability in normal human cells. Since Cdt1 is overexpressed in cancer cells, this would be a new molecular mechanism leading to carcinogenesis.

Esophageal squamous cancer (ESC) is one of the most aggressive tumors of the gastrointestinal tract. A combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy (CRT) has improved the clinical outcome, but the molecular background determining the effectiveness of therapy remains unknown. NRF2 is a master transcriptional regulator of stress adaptation, and gain of-function mutation of NRF2 in cancer confers resistance to stressors including anticancer therapy. Direct resequencing analysis revealed that Nrf2 gain-of-function mutation occurred recurrently (18/82, 22%) in advanced ESC tumors and ESC cell lines (3/10). The presence of Nrf2 mutation was associated with tumor recurrence and poor prognosis. Short hairpin RNA-mediated down-regulation of NRF2 in ESC cells that harbor only mutated Nrf2 allele revealed that themutant NRF2 conferred increased cell proliferation, attachment-independent survival, and resistance to 5-fluorouracil and γ-irradiation. Based on the Nrf2 mutation status, gene expression signatures associated with NRF2 mutation were extracted from ESC cell lines, and their potential utility for monitoring and prognosis was examined in a cohort of 33 pre-CRT cases of ESC. The molecular signatures of NRF2 mutation were significantly predictive and prognostic for CRT response. In conclusion, recurrent NRF2 mutation confers malignant potential and resistance to therapy in advanced ESC, resulting in a poorer outcome. Molecular signatures of NRF2 mutation can be applied as predictive markers of response to CRT, and efficient inhibition of aberrant NRF2 activation could be a promising approach in combination with CRT.

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Ovarian surface epithelium (OSE) is considered to give rise to epithelial ovarian carcinomas (EOCs). To elucidate early processes contributing to the development of EOCs from the OSE, two batches of primary human OSE cells were transduced with non-viral human genes (mutant Cdk4, cyclinD1 and hTERT) so as to efficiently establish normal diploid OSE cells without chromosomal instability. Then defined genetic alterations frequently observed in EOCs were transduced into the OSE cells. A combination of p53 inactivation and oncogenic Kras transduction did not confer tumor-forming ability in immunodeficient mice, though additional transduction of Akt or combined transduction of c-myc with bcl-2 did result in tumor formation. In the latter case, tumors demonstrated phenotypes reminiscent of human EOCs, including cytokeratin expression, a highly aggressive phenotype, metastatic behavior and formation of ascites. These results indicate that inactivation of p53 and activation of the Ras pathway play critical roles in ovarian carcinogenesis in co-operation with the Akt or c-myc pathways. This first in vitro model system faithfully recapitulating the development of EOCs using normal human OSE cells should greatly facilitate further studies of EOCs.