Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial compound used extensively to produce synthetic polymers, such as epoxy resins, which are incorporated into the inner coating of metal cans, and also to manufacture polycarbonates with applications in bottles, including bottles of water. Several studies have reported on the transfer of this compound to food. Regarding human exposure to BPA, food intake can be considered the most serious among all the routes, not only because it potentially reaches more people in different age groups (including infants, an especially vulnerable group), but also because it inadvertently occurs over long time periods. BPA is considered an endocrine disruptor and several studies have proposed a relationship between exposure to BPA and the appearance of adverse health effects, such as cancer, infertility, diabetes, and obesity, among others. In 2015 however, the European Food Safety Authority concluded in its last scientific opinion that this compound does not pose any risk to the exposed population's health. Therefore, the EU regards BPA as an authorized product to be used as food contact material. Although BPA intake through food is apparently below the set limits, research into BPA and its potential negative effects is still ongoing. This review contains the most recent in vitro and in vivo studies on BPA toxicity and its harmful effects on health, and it intends to address human exposure to BPA, namely through dietary exposure and its impact on human health.

Although nowadays the intentional poisoning of domestic and wild animals is a crime in EU, in the past the poison was used in rural areas of a number of European countries to kill animals that were considered harmful for human activities. In Spain evidences indicate that intentional poisonings continue to occur throughout the entire country nowadays. This situation seems to be of particular concern in the Canary Islands (Spain), where this study was performed. Our results confirmed that 225 animals were poisoned by pesticides over the study period (32 months; 2010-2013). The intentionality of the poisoning was confirmed in 117 cases. It has to be highlighted that the other 108 animals also died by pesticide poisoning, although the intentionality was only suspected. This incidence is currently the highest reported in any region from European Union. The pesticides carbofuran, bromadiolone, brodifacoum and aldicarb were the most frequently detected involved. Among the affected species, it has to be highlighted that endangered species are frequently affected in poisoning incidents. Notably, chemicals banned in the EU (carbofuran and aldicarb) were identified in approximately 75% of cases, and in almost 100% of baits, which suggests that these pesticides are still available to the population. Several circumstances may explain these results. Firstly, little control over the sale and possession of pesticide products, and the potential existence of an illegal market of pesticides banned in the European Union in the neighbouring African continent. In addition, the limited awareness of the population about the dangerousness of these compounds, for the environment, animals, or even people, make the situation very worrying in these islands. Stronger regulations, control of legal and illegal pesticide use, development of educational programs and legal action in poisoning incidents are needed to decrease the impact of pesticide misuse on wildlife and domestic animals.

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Anticoagulant rodenticides are highly toxic compounds that are widely used for pest control of rodents, but that also may threaten the wildlife's health. This work aimed to assess the exposure to first- and second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) in six birds of prey species from the Canary Islands (Spain). The concentrations of seven widely used ARs were determined by LC-MS/MS in 104 liver samples of six species of birds of prey (Buteo buteo, Accipiter nisus, Falco pelegrinoides, Falco tinnunculus, Asio otus, and Tyto alba). We determined that 61% of the livers had detectable residues of at least one AR. The most frequently detected AR was bromadiolone, which was detected in 60.3% of the positive cases. The detection frequencies of these compounds varied widely, depending on the species. More than 75% of the A. nisus, T. alba, and A. otus individuals had detectable rodenticide residues in the liver. However, F. tinnunculus exhibited the highest concentrations of AR, with median values above 100 ng/g w.w. We did not detect first-generation ARs in any of the samples. When grouped, nocturnal species exhibited higher AR concentrations than diurnal species (P<0.001). The residue levels were higher among small mammal-eaters than bird-eaters (P<0.01). While most animals exhibited no macroscopic signs of coagulation disorders, approximately 35% exceeded the threshold levels of toxicity, which suggests that these compounds could weaken these animals in their natural environment. In conclusion, the control of rodent populations by ARs suggests that these compounds will enter the food chain and thus threaten the vulnerable populations of raptors on the Canary Islands. Our findings require authorities to ban or strictly control the use of these rodenticides in the natural environment for the conservation of raptors and other predatory species.

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